Forging

Forging:
 Working of metal into other shape by hammering or Grain Flow comparison:
pressing (a) Casting process
 Forging machines are now capable of making parts ranging (b) Machining process
in size of a bolt to a turbine rotor (c) Forging
 Most forging operation are carried out hot, although
certain metals may be cold forged
 Upset Forging:

 Barreling also can develop in upsetting hot workpieces

between cold dies.
 The material at or near the die surfaces cools rapidly,
while the rest of the workpiece remains relatively hot.
 Consequently, the material at the top and bottom of the
workpiece has higher resistance to deformation than the
Solid cylindrical billet Uniform deformation Deformation with
upset without friction friction material at the center.
 As a result, the central portion of the workpiece expands

Barreling can be minimized by using effective lubricants laterally to a greater extent than do the ends.
 Barreling from thermal effects can be reduced or
eliminated by using heated dies.
Different Forging Operations

Open Die Forging Impression/ Closed Die Forging

Flashless/ Precision Die Forging

Open Die Forging
Open Die Forging – With no friction Cogging

 Cogging is an open-die forging operation in which

the thickness of a bar is reduced by successive
forging steps (bites) at specific intervals
 the contact area between the die and the
workpiece is small, a long section of a bar can be
reduced in thickness without requiring large forces
or heavy machinery

ln (h0/h)

The forging force, F, in an open-die forging operation on a

solid cylindrical workpiece can be estimated from the
formula
Problem 1:

A solid cylindrical slug made of 304 stainless steel is 150 mm (6 in.) in diameter and 100 mm (4 in.) high. It is reduced in
height by 50% at room temperature by open-die forging with flat dies. Assuming that the coefficient of friction is 0.2,
calculate the forging force at the end of the stroke.
Closed Die Forging
 In impression-die forging, the workpiece takes the shape of
the die cavity while being forged between two shaped dies
 This process usually is carried out at elevated temperatures
to lower the required forces
 During deformation, some of the material flows outward
and forms a flash

The forging force, F, required to carry out an impression-die

forging operation can be estimated from the formula

𝐹 =𝑘𝑌 𝑓 𝐴
where k is a multiplying factor obtained from Table given
Forging Analysis
 Slab analysis
 frictionless with friction
 Rectangular
 Cylindrical

Assumptions:
 Entire forging is plastic
 Material is perfectly plastic
 Friction coefficient (µ) is constant
 Plane strain
 In any thin slab, stresses are uniform
Forging Analysis – Sliding approximation

Forging Analysis – Sticking approximation

Problem 2:

A strip of lead with initial dimensions 24mm X 24 mm X 150 mm is forged between two flat dies to a final size of
6mm X 96 mm X 150 mm. If the coefficient of friction between the job and the die is 0.25, determine the
maximum forging force. The average yield stress of lead in tension is 7 N/mm 2.
EXTRUSION PROCESS
CHARCTERISTIC OF EXTRUSION PROCESSES

 Similar to closed die forging

 Forging
– slug (bulk) is forging
– flash (extrusion) is waste
 Extrusion
– extrusion (flash) is part
– billet (bulk) is waste
TYPES

 Direct
 Indirect
 Tubular
 Hydrostatic
 Cold Impact
STEEL EXTRUSION

Tprocessing = 1150 – 1315 oC)

Tmelting = 1370 – 1540oC

Die ≈ 205 0C
Obviously “Hot” – above recrystallization point
Lubricants – glass (viscous lube ) 0.001” thick
– MoS2
– graphite
Wire Drawing

Assumption:
1. Uniform state of stress
2. The redundant work is negligible
3. A cylindrical state of stress is
assumed-Axial stress and Die
pressure can be assumed to be
principal stress

Defects:
1. Centre line cracks – If removal of oxide is not proper
2. Seams – Longitudinal scratches
3. Stress corrosion cracking
Tube Drawing

In tube drawing deformation is carried out without any support so neither there is a control of outgoing tube thickness
nor control over the surface finish.

Tube sinking operation:

t1 and t2 are the incoming and outgoing

tube thickness
Analysis of Wire Drawing
(A) Johnson Equation

Where, R = Extrusion Ration =

(B) SLAB METHOD

Case 1: Tube Sinking

R1
R2
Case 2: Tube drawing with floating mandrel

h1

h2

( )[ ( ) ] ( )
𝑩𝟏 𝑩𝟏
𝟏+ 𝑩𝟏 𝒉𝟐 𝒉𝟐 𝝁𝟏 +𝝁 𝟐
𝝈 𝒅=( 𝟐 𝑲 ′ ) 𝟏− +𝝈 𝒃 , 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝑩𝟏 = In wire drawing plain stress
𝑩𝟏 𝒉𝟏 𝒉𝟏 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜶 − 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜷
and plain strain criteria is
Case 3: Tube drawing with moving mandrel used: 2K’ = σo
In tube drawing operation

( )[ ( ) ] ( )
𝑩𝟐 𝑩𝟐
𝟏+ 𝑩𝟐 𝑨𝟐 𝑨𝟐 𝝁 𝟏plain
only − 𝝁strain
𝟐 conditions
𝝈 𝒅=( 𝟐 𝑲 ′ ) 𝟏− +𝝈𝒃 ,𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝑩𝟐 =
𝑩𝟐 𝑨𝟏 𝑨𝟏 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜶 −𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜷
are used: 2K’ =
Case 4: Frictionless wire drawing

Extrusion:
The boundary conditions for extrusion processes are reverse i.e.
 Problems

Determine the drawing stress to reduce the 10 mm diameter of steel to 8 mm with a semi die angle of 6 0 and
coefficient of friction of 0.09. Consider the flow curve equation of material to be .
EXTRUSION DEFECTS

• Irregularities due to Non-Uniform flow and stress distribution

• Defects depend on:
1. Wall Friction
2. Wall Temperature

TYPES OF EXTRUSION DEFECTS

1. Surface Cracking
2. Internal Cracking
3. Piping Defect
SURFACE CRACKING

Surface cracks are developed due to:

• High Extrusion Temperature
• High RAM Speed
• High Friction
• It occurs at high temperature such as Hot Hardness
• Also occur at low temperature
• These cracks are intergranular
INTERNAL CRACKING

• Center Cracking
• Center Burst
• Chevron Cracking
• Arrowhead cracking

These are hard to detect in the material

Occurs due to difference in velocity and tensile stresses in
center of the material, and can be prevented by using
appropriate:
 Die Angle
 Friction
 Extrusion Ratio
• Center Cracking
Piping Defect

It occurs during hot extrusion due to the presence of impurities

and oxides
Piping is a result of improper metal flow during the extrusion
operation.