GENERAL INTRODUCTION

DEFINITIONS
Tutorial 1

1. What are your expectations after this course

2. What is the difference between Suspension Bridge and Cable-Stayed

Bridge?

Brief Course Outline

Introduction to various fields of engineering Practice, with particular
emphasis on civil engineering; Requirements for registration with
professional bodies; Duties and code of conduct for civil engineer; The
role of civil engineering in the development of Nigeria with particular
reference to problems of amenity and the influence of the engineer on
the environment. Planning of cities and rural settlements; Report writing;
Presentation of engineering data and technical material in various written
forms. Practice in oral presentation
Engr. (Chief) Adeniyi Williams (the first National President of the Nigerian Society of
Engineers and the first Director of Works of the First University in Nigeria
underscored the importance of engineering in the following words “If we withdraw
the clothes we wear, our roads, the houses we live in, water supply, electricity and
electronic equipments, the automobile, railway, the ocean liner and airlines and
other media transport, the various implements, tools and equipment which
technologists themselves and other professionals use in the practice of their
profession; you will agree with me that life will become bleak indeed and hardly
worth living”
If we are to compile the wonders of modern world, they will no doubt be entirely
products of engineering and technology.
•Bridges
•Dams
•Airplane
•COVID 19 Vaccine etc
Merril: The creative application of scientific principles to analyze, design or develop
structures, machines, apparatus or manufacturing processes.
Annonymous: Flexible repertoire of skills, knowledge and methods for attaining
desired results and avoiding failures under varying conditions. The basic needs of
society in terms of food, shelter, and defense provide the stimuli for the emergence of
engineering.
Chambers dictionary: The human Endeavour by which the forces at nature are brought
under human control and the properties of matter made useful in structures and
machines.
The thrust of this is that engineering provides practical solutions to problems of living
by making, using and doing useful things. The emphasis on what constitutes a feat of
engineering is thus the identification and utilisation of techniques which has to be
analysed, designed and requires knowledge of physical laws and skills for
accomplishing recognised purposes. It is within this framework that the literal and root
meaning of engineering is usually derived, that is from Latin world ingenium (natural
capacity, invention), and it derived from gignere (to produce) or as R.J submits, from
 EVOLUTION
Engineering evolved from the response for the provision of basic societal needs in
terms of food, shelter and defense. Early hunters-gatherers made crude simple tools for
the exploitation of readily available but scattered natural resources and different
sources of energy (wood, wind, sunlight, falling water, coal gas, electricity, petroleum
and natural fission). Both the equipment and materials for exploitation have not been
static (Slide rule, four figure table) . The speed of transformation and pace of
transformation is however society dependent. While some transformations came as
product of inventions independently, some were byproducts of culture contact and
culture borrowing
In the evolution of the concept of Engineering, we can identify three stages depending
upon whether we regard it as communal industry in which no individual stood out, a
fulltime occupation for some individuals who also engage in other activities or strictly
a well-defined specialist profession. In engineering palace, we also reckon with
concepts such as craft, craftsman, machine, mechanic, machinists, technique, technician
and technology. The irrigation works in pharaonic Egypt are good examples of
engineering as communal industry in which no individual name stands out but the
application of scientific knowledge gathered from empirical experience
 EVOLUTION CONT’D

Engineering as a communal industry became foundation on which the super structure

of
engineering as an occupation was built. The main difference between the two concepts
was that as an industry, specialization was not a major focus of engineering and its
practitioners did not necessarily engage themselves in it as their major vocation
exclusive of other vocations which contributed to the sustenance of life. It is difficult
to say when engineering emerged as a recognized and well defined human activity, the
forces that brought about the evolution include the need to construct and maintain
large scale irrigation works, urbanization and the need for major public works
including mosques and cathedrals, palaces and city halls, drainage and sewage systems
and above all the need for fortification and offensive weapons in war. The first
category of group of engineers is in fact, the military engineers who were trained
largely by apprenticeship, which they learn by doing and being apprentice to those who
had learnt.
 BRANCHES

AGRICULTURAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL

CIVIL
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC
INDUSTRIAL AND PRODUCTION
MECHANICAL
PETROLEUM
WOOD PRODUCT
Civil engineering is arguably the second oldest engineering discipline. It deals with the
built environment and can be dated to the first time someone placed a roof over his or
her head or laid a tree trunk across a river to make it easier to get across. The built
environment encompasses much of what defines modern civilization. Buildings and
bridges are often the first constructions that come to mind, as they are the most
conspicuous creations of structural engineering, one of civil engineering's major sub-
disciplines. Roads, railroads, subway systems, and airports are designed by
transportation engineers, another category of civil engineering. And then there are the
less visible creations of civil engineers, such as oil and water pipelines, sub-surface
cable laying etc. (Cable and suspension bridge? Assignment)
Civil engineers do a lot more than design buildings and bridges. They can be found in
the aerospace industry designing jetliners and space stations; in the automotive
industry, perfecting the load-carrying capacity of a chassis and improving the
crashworthiness of bumpers and doors; and they can be found in the ship building
industry, the power industry, and many other industries wherever constructed facilities
are involved. And they plan and oversee the construction of these facilities as
construction managers.
Civil engineers midwife many disciplines e.g. (Architecture, Biomedical Engineering
in UI. )
Civil engineering is the application of physical and scientific principles for solving the
problems of society, and its history is intricately linked to advances in understanding
of physics and mathematics throughout history. Because civil engineering is a wide
ranging profession, including several separate specialized sub-disciplines,
its history is linked to knowledge of structures, materials science, geography, geology,
soils, hydrology, environment, mechanics and other fields.
 What is Civil Engineering?

Civil engineering is a discipline that deals with the design, construction, and
maintenance of the physical and naturally-built environment, including works such as
roads, bridges, canals, dams, and buildings. Civil Engineering entails the application of
Mathematics and natural sciences such as Physics and Chemistry in the analysis,
modeling, design, construction and maintenance of structures such as dams, bridges,
buildings, waste and water management systems etc. for the sole purpose of supporting
human life. In present day parlance, it entails Science, Technology, Engineering and
Mathematics (STEM).
Some of the major branches of Civil Engineering are:
•Structural Engineering
•Transportation and Highway Engineering
•Water Resources and Environmental Engineering
•Hydraulics Engineering
•Geotechnical Engineering
 ENGINEERING ETHICS
Engineering ethics is the field of applied ethics and system of moral
principles that apply to the practice of engineering. The field examines
and sets the obligations by engineers to society, to their clients, and to
the profession. As a scholarly discipline, it is closely related to subjects
such as the philosophy of science, the philosophy of engineering, and
the ethics of technology. An engineer, as a professional, has a
responsibility to their client or employer, to their profession, and to the
general public, to perform their duties in as conscientious a manner as
possible. An ethical engineer is one who avoids conflicts of interest,
does not attempt to misrepresent their knowledge so as to accept jobs
outside their area of expertise, acts in the best interests of society and the
environment, fulfills the terms of their contracts or agreements in a
thorough and professional manner, and promotes the education of young
engineers within their field
A basicWhistle Blowing
ethical dilemma is that an engineer has the duty to report to the
appropriate authority a possible risk to others from a client or employer
failing to follow the engineer's directions.
According to first principles, this duty overrides the duty to a client and/or
employer. 
An engineer may be disciplined, or have their license revoked, even if the
failure to report such a danger does not result in the loss of life or health. In
many cases, this duty can be discharged by advising the client of the
consequences in a forthright matter, and ensuring the client takes the
engineer's advice. In very rare cases, where even a governmental authority
may not take appropriate action, the engineer can only discharge the duty by
making the situation public. As a result, whistle blowing by professional
engineers is not an unusual event, and courts have often sided with
engineers in such cases, overruling duties to employers and confidentiality
considerations that otherwise would have prevented the engineer from
speaking out
 Conduct

There are several other ethical issues that engineers may face. Some
have to do with technical practice, but many others have to do with
broader considerations of business conduct. These include:
•Relationships with clients, consultants, competitors, and contractors
•Ensuring legal compliance by clients, client's contractors, and others
•Conflict of interest
•Bribery and kickbacks, which also may include gifts, meals, services,
and entertainment
•Treatment of confidential or proprietary information
•Consideration of the employer’s assets
•Outside employment/activities (Moonlighting)
Some engineering societies are addressing environmental protection as a
stand-alone question of ethics. The field of business ethics often overlaps
and informs ethical decision making for engineers
 FAILURES

Failure can be defined as any form of behaviour in the member that seems to threaten the safety of
the member in terms of serviceability or which could lead to total collapse. There are three broad
categories of failures; these are ultimate limit state generally connected with collapse,
serviceability limit state connected with deflection and vibration, all other limit state connected
with special requirements, for instance, aesthetics, fatigue, fire resistance, and water tightness
1.8.1 Ultimate Failure
This type of failure is the structural collapse of the member. It may be slow structural collapse
known as plastic failure or sudden failure. These types of failures are usually disastrous in nature
and more widely publicized than the serviceable failures. An example of ultimate limit state failure
is roof blown-off
1.8.2 Serviceability Failure
These are fairly frequent form of structural failures observed in members. They appear in form of
deflection and cracks on a structural member, or a breakdown of waterproofing cover which could
result into water penetrating the roof, in case of concrete, initiating corrosion of reinforcements and
in wood structure, causing decay and eventual deterioration. They could lead to disruption of
services and interruption of business activities
1.8.3 Special Requirement Failure
This is a functional purpose requirement that has to do with special requirements other than the
limit states considered for some special functions other than that of the normal roof functions. For
example, in studio design, special precautions are built in the roof to reduce the noise penetration
and the acoustics of the roof. The requirement in radiation protection buildings is to prevent
leakage of radioactive elements; here the special requirement is to prevent porosity
Primary Causes of Engineering Disasters
The primary causes of engineering disasters are usually considered to be
•human factors (including both 'ethical' failure and accidents)
•design flaws (many of which are also the result of unethical practices)
•materials failures
•extreme conditions or environments, and, most commonly and importantly
•combinations of these reasons
A study conducted at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich analysed 800
cases of structural failure in which 504 people were killed, 592 people injured, and
millions of dollars damage incurred. When engineers were at fault, the researchers
classified the causes of failure as follows    
Insufficient knowledge.............................................36%
Underestimation of influence................................... 16%
Ignorance, carelessness, negligence .........................14%
Forgetfulness, error ................................................... 13%
Relying upon others without sufficient control ........... 9%
Objectively unknown situation ........................ ………7%
Imprecise definition of responsibilities ............. ………1%
Choice of bad quality................................ ……………..1%
Others……………………................................................ 3%
    Source: N. Chawla (Engineering Disaster: Learning from Failure)
 CIVIL ENGINEERING SUB DISCIPLINES
Civil engineering is a profession that has been described as “jack of all
trades but master of all”. It has a lot of applications that different fields
of study evolved from it. The major branches of civil engineering from
where others emanated include:
•Structural Engineering
•Transportation and Highway Engineering
•Water Resources and Environmental Engineering
•Hydraulics Engineering
Geotechnical Engineering
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING
Structural engineering is that part of civil engineering in which 
structural engineers are educated to create the 'bones and muscles' that
create the form and shape of man-made structures. Structural engineers
 need to understand and calculate the stability, strength and rigidity of
built structures for buildings and other structures
Structural engineering depends upon a detailed knowledge of 
applied mechanics, materials science and applied mathematics to
understand and predict how structures support and resist self-weight
and imposed loads.
To apply the knowledge successfully, a structural engineer generally
requires detailed knowledge of relevant empirical
and theoretical design codes, the techniques of structural analysis, as
well as some knowledge of the corrosion resistance of the materials and
structures, especially when those structures are exposed to the external
environment.
Since the 1990s, specialist software has become available to aid in the
design of structures, with the functionality to assist in
the drawing, analyzing and designing of structures with maximum
precision; examples include AutoCAD, StaadPro, ETABS,
Prokon, Revit Structure, Inducta RCB, etc. Such software may also take
into consideration, environmental loads, such as
from earthquakes and winds
Engineering structures must remain in equilibrium both externally
and internally when subjected to a system of forces.
The equilibrium requirements for structures in two Directions
For a structure subjected to a system of forces and couples which are
lying in the xy plane to remain at rest,
it must satisfy the following three equilibrium conditions:

The above three conditions are commonly referred to as the

equations of equilibrium for planar structures.
The type of support provided for a structure is important in ensuring
its stability. Supports connect the member to the ground or to some
other parts of the structure. However, the characteristics of some of
the supports are described below and shown in figure 3.1
Pin or Hinge Support
A pin support allows rotation about any axis but prevents movement
in the horizontal and vertical directions. Its idealized representation
and reactions are shown in Table 3.1.
Roller Support
A roller support allows rotation about any axis and translation
(horizontal movement) in any direction parallel to the surface on
which it rests. It restrains the structure from movement in a vertical
direction. The idealized representation of a roller and its reaction are
also shown in Table 3.1.
Rocker Support
The characteristics of a rocker support are like those of the roller
support. Its idealized form is depicted in Table 3.1.
Link
A link has two hinges, one at each end. It permits movement in all
direction, except in a direction parallel to its longitudinal axis,
which passes through the two hinges. In other words, the reaction
force of a link is in the direction of the link, along its longitudinal axis.
Fixed Support
A fixed support offers a constraint against rotation in any direction,
and it prevents movement in both horizontal and vertical directions.
Determinacy and Stability of Beams and Frames
Prior to the choice of an analytical method, it is important to establish
the determinacy and stability of a structure. A determinate structure is
one whose unknown external reaction or internal members can be
determined using only the conditions of equilibrium.
An indeterminate structure is one whose unknown forces cannot be
determined by the conditions of static equilibrium alone and will
require, in addition, a consideration of the compatibility conditions of
different parts of the structure for its complete analysis. Furthermore,
structures must be stable to be able to serve their desirable functions.
A structure is considered stable if it maintains its geometrical shape
when subjected to external forces
Formulations for Stability and Determinacy of Beams and
Frames
The conditions of determinacy, indeterminacy, and instability of
beams and frames can be stated as follows:

where
r = number of support reactions.
C = equations of condition (two equations for one internal roller and
one equation for each internal pin).
m = number of members.
j = number of joints.
Alternative Formulation for Determinacy and Stability of Beams and Fram

where
r = number of support reactions.
Fi = number of reaction forces transmitted by an internal hinge or
internal roller.
m = number of members.
Classify the beams shown below as stable, determinate, or
indeterminate, and state the degree of indeterminacy where necessary.
Solution
First, draw the free-body diagram of each beam. To determine the
classification,
apply equation 3.3 or equation 3.4.
Using equation 3.3, r = 7, m = 2, c = 0, j = 3. Applying the equation
leads to 3(2) + 7 > 3(3) + 0, or 13 > 9.
Therefore, the beam is statically indeterminate to the 4°.
Using equation 3.4, r = 7, m = 1, Fi = 0. Applying the equation leads to
7 + 0 > (3)(1), or 7 > 3.
Therefore, the beam is statically indeterminate to the 4°.
Note: When using equation 3.3, the portions on either side of the
interior support are counted as separate members.
Solution
Using equation 3.3, r = 6, m = 3, c = 0, j = 4. Applying the
equation leads to 3(3) + 6 > 3(4) + 0,
or 15 > 12. Therefore, the beam is statically indeterminate to the 3°.
Using equation 3.4, r = 6, m = 1, Fi = 0. Applying the equation
leads to 6 + 0 > (3)(1), or 6 > 3.
Therefore, the beam is statically indeterminate to the 3°.
 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

Transportation engineering or transport engineering is the application of

technology and scientific principles to the planning, functional design,
operation and management of facilities for any mode of transportation in
order to provide for the safe, efficient, rapid, comfortable, convenient,
economical, and environmentally compatible movement of people and
goods . The planning aspects of transportation engineering relate to
elements of urban planning, and involve technical forecasting decisions
and political factors. Technical forecasting of passenger travel usually
involves an urban transportation planning model, requiring the
estimation of trip generation, trip distribution, mode choice and 
route assignment (which streets or routes are being used). Passenger trips
are the focus of transportation engineering because they often represent
the peak of demand on any transportation system
Fig. Laying route collection Routes
Laying Collection Routes Design
The following constraints were assumed applicable
1. General
a. Occupants per resident = 3.5
b. Solid – waste generation rate = 1.6kg/person / d
c. Collection frequency
d. Type of collection service = curb
e. Collection crew size = one person
f. Collection vehicle capacity = 20m3
g. Compacted density of solid wastes in collection
vehicle = 325kg/m3
2. Route constraints
a. No U-turns in streets
b. Collection from each side of street with stand-up
right- hand-drive collection vehicle
Determine total number of residences from which wastes are to
be collected.
Residences = 10(16) +4(36) +1(28) = 332
Determine the compacted volume of solid waste to be collected
per week.
Vol. /wk= (332 residences x 3.5 persons/residence x1.6kg/person/d
x7d.wk)/325kg/m3 =40.0m3 /wk
Determine the number of trips/wk.
Trip/wk = 40.0m3 /wk =2 20m3 /trip
Determine the average number of residences from which wastes
are to be collected each day. Residences/trip = 332/2 = 166
Lay out collection routes by trial and error using the route
constraints cited above as a guide.
The two routes are shown in the figure
Before any planning occurs, the Engineer must take what
is known as an inventory of the area or if it is appropriate,
the previous system in place. This inventory or database
must include information on
(1) Population
(2) Land use
(3) Economic activity
(4) Transportation facilities and services
(5) Travel patterns and volumes
(6) Laws and ordinances
(7) Regional financial resources
(8) Community values and expectations.
These inventories help the engineer create business
models to complete accurate forecasts of the future
conditions of the system review
 Highway Engineering 
Highway engineering is a Civil engineering discipline that involves the
planning, design, construction, operation, and maintenance of roads, bridges,
and tunnels to ensure safe and effective transportation of people and goods.
Highway engineers must take into account future traffic flows, design of
highway intersections/interchanges, geometric alignment and design, highway
pavement materials and design, structural design of pavement thickness, and
pavement maintenance
There are three key steps for integrating environmental considerations into the
planning, scheduling, construction, and maintenance of highways. This process
is known as an environmental Impact Assessment, or EIA, as it systematically
deals with the following elements:
Identification of the full range of possible impacts on the natural and socio-
economic environment
Evaluation and quantification of these impacts
Formulation of measures to avoid, mitigates, and compensate for the
anticipated impacts
There are certain considerations that must be properly addressed in the
design process to successfully fit a highway to a site's topography and
maintain its safety. Some of these design considerations include:
•Design speed
•Design traffic volume
•Number of lanes
•Level of Service (LOS)
•Sight Distance
•Alignment, super-elevation, and grades
•Cross section
•Lane width
•Horizontal and vertical clearance
The operational performance of a highway can be seen through
drivers’ reactions to the design considerations and their
interactions
The Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) = Lag Distance + Braking
Distance
-> SSD = vt + (1/(2fg))v2
Here, v is the speed in m/s2, t is the reaction time taken, f is coefficient of
friction, g is the acceleration due to gravity.
The Table-1 Below shows the coefficient of friction for different design
speeds. Speed
<0 40 50 60 >80
kmph

f 0.4 0.38 0.37 0.36 0.5

Table-1: Coefficient of longitudinal friction

If the road possesses an ascending gradient in an amount equal to +n%,
to the braking action the component factor of gravity will be added

SSD = vt + (v2/ (2g (f ±0.01n)))

 Wa ter Resourc es an d Env iron ment al En gineer ing

Water resources engineering is concerned with the collection and management

of water (as a natural resource). As a discipline it therefore combines
hydrology, environmental science, meteorology, geology, conservation, and
resource management. This area of civil engineering relates to the prediction
and management of both the quality and the quantity of water in both
underground (aquifers) and above ground (lakes, rivers, and streams) resources.
Water resource engineers analyse and model very small to very large areas of
the earth to predict the amount and content of water as it flows into, through, or
out of a facility. Although the actual design of the facility may be left to other
engineers. Environmental Engineering Focus
Environmental engineers system study the effect of technological advances on
the environment. To do so, they conduct studies on hazardous-
waste management to evaluate the significance of such hazards, advice on
treatment and containment, and develop regulations to prevent mishaps.
Environmental engineers design municipal water supply and
industrial wastewater treatment systems. They address local and worldwide
environmental issues such as the effects of acid rain, global warming, 
ozone depletion, water pollution and air pollution from automobile exhausts
 and industrial sources.
Sometimes the insoluble particles are too small to settle out quickly enough to
use sedimentation alone. Two processes, known
as flocculation and coagulation, are used to create larger particles that will
settle quickly to the bottom. In flocculation, small particles with non-rigid
surfaces are made to agglomerate by mixing the water (and thus bringing the
particles into contact with one another so that the surfaces can become stuck
together). When the agglomeration of the particles gets large enough, the
aggregate can settle in still water by sedimentation. Other suspended particles
do not agglomerate well by flocculation. To remove these particles from the
water, coagulation must be used. Coagulation is the process of gathering
particles into a cluster or clot, often achieved by the addition of special
chemicals known as coagulants. The most common coagulant used in water-
treatment facilities is aluminum sulfate (alum, Al2(SO4)3). Other Al and Fe
salts, including poly-aluminum chloride, ferric chloride, and ferric sulfate, may
be used as well. These salts react with ions naturally found in the water to
produce a solid precipitate (Equation 2). As this precipitate forms, other
particles are caught in
the solid, forming a mass that will settle to the bottom via sedimentation
 Where
is the ionization constant or ion product of water = 10-14

pH =
- log10 =

In a water treatment plant, the pH values of entering and leaving waters are
7.5 and 8.5,
assuming linear variation of pH with time, find out the average pH value of
water.
SOLUTION
pH = - log10
For entering
7.5 = - log10H
H = 10-7.5
For leaving
H = 10-8.5
Average Value of H = (10-7.5 + 10-8.5)/2 = 5.5 X 10-8.5
Hence average pH value of water is -log10H = -log105.5 X 10-8.5
Hydrology
Hydrology is the scientific study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water
on Earth and other planets, including the water cycle, water resources and
environmental watershed sustainability. A practitioner of hydrology is a hydrologist,
working within the fields of earth or environmental science, physical geography,
geology or civil and environmental engineering. Using various analytical methods
and scientific techniques, they collect and analyze data to help solve water related
problems such as environmental preservation, natural disasters, and 
water management. Hydrology subdivides into surface water hydrology,
groundwater hydrology (hydrogeology), and marine hydrology. Domains of
hydrology include hydrometeorology, surface hydrology, hydrogeology, 
drainage-basin management and water quality, where water plays the central role.
Oceanography and meteorology are not included because water is only one of many
important aspects within those fields.
The central theme of hydrology is that water circulates throughout the Earth
 through different pathways and at different rates. The most vivid image of this is in
the evaporation of water from the ocean, which forms clouds. These clouds drift
over the land and produce rain. The rainwater flows into lakes, rivers, or aquifers.
The water in lakes, rivers, and aquifers then either evaporates back to the
atmosphere or eventually flows back to the ocean, completing a cycle. Water
Hydrological Cycle
Example 1.4  A part of catchment area of Oba River measuring 78
km² received 100 mm of rainfall in 3 hours due to a storm. A
drainage stream joins this part of catchment to the Hub River. The
stream was dry before rainfall and there was flow in the stream for
a period of 2.5 days with an average discharge of 10 cumec. After
the storm runoff, the stream again became dry. Find the losses,
direct runoff and total runoff in cumec and Hectare-meter.
Solution
According to hydrologic equation, Area of Catchment ‘A’ = 78 km2
=78x106 m2 P = 100 mm =0.1 m Q = 10 m3/sec t = 2.5 days =
2.5 x 24 x 60 x 60 sec Total Runoff = P x A = ( 0.1 ) x 78 x 106 =
7.8 x106m3 = 7.8 x 106 / 104 = 780 Hectare-m DRO = 10 x 2.5 x
24 x 60 x 60 = 2.16x106 m3 = 216 Hectare-m Losses ‘L’ = P - R =
7.8 x x 106 = 5.64 x 106m3 = 564 Hectare-m
Hydraulic engineering as a sub-discipline of civil engineering is concerned with the
flow and conveyance of fluids, principally water and sewage. One feature of these
systems is the extensive use of gravity as the motive force to cause the movement of
the fluids. This area of civil engineering is intimately related to the design of bridges, 
dams, channels, canals, and levees, and to both sanitary and environmental engineering
Fundamentals of Hydraulic Engineering defines hydrostatics as the study of fluids at
rest.[1] In a fluid at rest, there exists a force, known as pressure, which acts upon the
fluid's surroundings. This pressure, measured in N/m 2, is not constant throughout the
body of fluid. Pressure, “p”, in a given body of fluid, increases with an increase in
depth. Where the upward force on a body acts on the base and can be found by the
equation: P = ρgy
Where: ρ = density of water; g = specific gravity; y = depth of the body of liquid
Rearranging this equation gives you the pressure head
p/ρg = y
Behavior of real fluids
Real and ideal fluids
The main difference between an ideal fluid and a real fluid is that for ideal
flow p1 = p2 and for real flow p1 > p2. Ideal fluid is incompressible and has no viscosity.
Real fluid has viscosity. Ideal fluid is only an imaginary fluid as all fluids that exist
have some viscosity.
Viscous flow
A viscous fluid will deform continuously under to a shear force by the Pascal law,
whereas an ideal fluid doesn't deform.
For an ideal fluid, Bernoulli's equation holds along streamlines.

Tutorial 2
A cylindrical water tower of diameter 3.0 m supplies water to a
house. The level of water in the water tower is 35 m above the
point where the water enters the house through a pipe that has
an inside diameter 5.1 cm. The intake pipe delivers water at a
maximum rate of 2.0×10−3m3⋅s−1. The pipe is connected to a
narrower pipe leading to the second floor that has an inside
diameter 2.5 cm. What is the pressure and speed of the water
in the narrower pipe at a point that is a height 5.0 m above the
level where the pipe enters the house?
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
Geotechnical engineering is the branch of civil engineering concerned with the
engineering behavior of earth materials . Geotechnical engineering uses principles of 
soil mechanics and rock mechanics to investigate subsurface conditions and materials;
determine the relevant physical/mechanical and chemical properties of these materials;
evaluate stability of natural slopes and man-made soil deposits; assess risks posed by site
conditions; design earthworks and structure foundations; and monitor site conditions,
earthwork and foundation construction.
Foundations built for above-ground structures include shallow and deep foundations.
Retaining structures include earth-filled dams and retaining walls. Earthworks include 
embankments, tunnels, dikes and levees, channels, reservoirs, deposition of 
hazardous waste and sanitary landfills
Some of the important properties
Specific weight or Unit Weight
This is the cumulative weight of the solid particles, water and air of the unit volume of
soil. Note that the air phase is often assumed to be weightless
Porosity
Ratio of the volume of voids (containing air, water, or other fluids) in a soil to the total
volume of the soil. Porosity is mathematically related to void ratio the by

Where Vv = the volume of void and V = the total volume of the mass of soil, including
air, water and solid
Void ratio
This is the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of solid particles in a soil mass.
Void ratio is mathematically related to the porosity by
Vv= the volume of void and Vs = the volume of solid

Permeability
This is a measure of the ability of water to flow through the soil. It is expressed in units
of velocity.
Compressibility
This is the rate of change of volume with effective stress. If the pores are filled with
water, then the water must be squeezed out of the pores to allow volumetric compression
of the soil; this process is called consolidation.
Shear strength
This is the maximum shear stress that can be applied in a soil mass without causing shear
failure.