Chapter Two- 2 - Formulation of a

research problem
1

2.1 Nature of research problem

2.2 Operationalization of research
problem
2.3 Definition of a variable
2.4 Formulating Research Hypothesis

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 Nature of Research Problem
2

 A research problem is the situation that causes the

researcher to feel apprehensive, confused and ill at
ease.
 It is the demarcation of a problem area within a
certain context involving the WHO or WHAT, the
WHERE, the WHEN and the WHY of the problem
situation.

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 A problem clearly stated is a problem half solved.

 A problem to be investigated must be defined in order
to discriminate relevant data from irrelevant
 Ill-defined problem may create hurdle
 Defining a research is prerequisite for any study.
 Formulating a problem is often more essential
than its solution
 It is only carefully detailing research problem
that we can work out the research design
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 when the problem is clearly defined ,answer for the

following and the like questions will be found:
-what data are to be collected?
-what relations are to be explored?
-What techniques are to be used? etc

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Sources of Research problems

Reading

 Academic Experience
Daily experience

Exposure to field situation

Consultation

Brainstorming

Research

Intuition

New Innovation
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 Formulation of research problem
6

 Formulating a research problem is the first and most

important step in the research process. It is like
determination of the destination before undertaking a
journey.
 Formulation of the problem means defining the
problem precisely. In other words, a problem well
defined is half solved.
 Formulation of problem is often more essential than its
solution because when the problem is formulated, an
appropriate technique can be applied to generate
alternative solutions.
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 Formulation of a problem involves the following

techniques:
 Formulation of the problem in a general way
 Understanding the nature of the problem
 Surveying the available literature
 Developing the idea through discussion
 Rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition.

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 1.Formulation of the problem in a
8
general way:
 It should be stated in broad general way,
 the research must be immerse himself thoroughly
in the subject matter
 must be relation between two variable.
 Carryout preliminary survey(pilot study).
 to resolve ambiguities the researcher need cool
thinking and rethinking over the problem.

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 2. Understanding the nature of the
9
problem
 understanding the organization and nature, objective to
state the research problem.
 consider once again all those points that induce you to
make a general statement concerning the problem.
 View the environment of the problem

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 3.Surveying the available literature
10

-Knowing what data are available often serve:

 the problem;

the technique used,

instruments;

related problems and

 their solutions

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 Importance of formulating a research
problem
11

 It determines the research destine. It indicates a

journey for the researcher. Without it, a clear and
feasible plan is impossible.
 Research problem is like the foundation of a
building. The type and design of the building is
dependent upon the foundation. If the foundation is
well-designed and strong, one can expect the
building to be also.

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 The way you formulate your research problem

determines almost every step that follows:
 the type of study design that can be used;
 the type of sampling strategy that can be employed;
 the research instrument that can be used; and
 the type of analysis that can be undertaken.
 The quality of the research report (output of the
research undertakings) is dependent on the quality of
the problem formulation.
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 Considerations in selecting a research
problem
13

While selecting a research problem/topic there is a number

of considerations to keep in mind. These considerations
are:
 Researcher’s interest, competency and own resources
 Magnitude (sufficient knowledge in the area)
 Originality and Novelty
 Researchable
 Measurement of concepts
 Level of expertise
 Relevance
 Availability of data
 Ethical issues
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 Steps in formulating research
14
Problems
 The formulation of a research problem is the most crucial part of the
research journey on which the quality of the entire project depends.
Steps include:
1) Identify a broad filed or subject area of interest: What is it that
really interest mean as a professional? This will help you to find an
interesting topic and one which may be of use to you in the future.
2) Dissect the broad area in to subareas: Exhaustively list the
subareas from the various sources.
3) Select what is of most interest to you: it is neither advisable nor
feasible to study all subareas. Select one with which you are more
passionate about. Your interest should be the most important
determinant for selection.

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4) Raise research questions: what is it that I want to find out about

in this area. Within your chosen subarea, list whatever questions
you want to find answers and if you think they are too many to be
manageable, go through a process of deletion.

5) Formulate objectives: Formulate your main and sub objectives.

Your objectives grow out of your research questions.
 The main difference between objectives and research questions is
the way in which they are written.
 Research questions are obviously questions while objectives
transform these questions in to aims by using action oriented
words such as “to find out, to determine, to ascertain, to
examine”.

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6) Asses your objectives: Examine your objectives to

ascertain the feasibility of achieving them through the
research endeavor. Consider each of the objectives in
light of time, resources (human and financial) and
technical expertise at your disposal.
7) Double check: Go back and check that
 You are really interested in the study

 You agree with the objectives

 You have adequate resources

 You have the technical expertise to undertake the study

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 How to Evaluate a Research
17
Problem
Research problem shall be evaluated in terms of:
 Specificity and clarity

 Feasibility:

 sufficient resources (time, money, skills…)

 levels of difficulty & potential reward
 access – groups /individuals /records
 ethical concern
 Provable or testable

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 Academically interesting/significant
 fill a gap in theory
 important (influential /critical/special/unique )
population
 unique methods or provide opportunities for a fruitful
exploration with known techniques
 implications for a wide range of practical problems
 repeat a study: with a different groups of respondents,
 timely

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 Research Objective formulation
19

 Objectives are the goals set out to attain in the

study. Since objectives inform readers of what the
researcher want to achieve through his/her study, it
is extremely important to word them clearly and
specifically.
 Objectives should be listed in two headings:
 General objectives
 Specific objectives

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 The main objective is an overall statement of the

thrust of the study. It is also a statement of the main
association and relationships that the researcher
seeks to discover or establish.
 The sub objectives are the specific aspects of the
topic that the researcher want to investigate with in
the main framework of his/her study

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 The way the main and sub objectives are worded

determines how your research is
classified( descriptive, exploratory,
correlational/explanatory etc..)
 Characteristics of research objective:
1. Clear
2. Complete
3. Specific
4. measurable

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 The objective should start with words such as:

 To determine
 To find out
 To ascertain
 To measure
 To explore etc…
 There should not be a place for ambiguity, non-
specificity or incompleteness either in the wording
of the objectives or in the ideas they communicate.

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 Operationalization of research
23
problem
 The main aim of formulating a research problem is
to clearly and precisely define the research
problem. In defining the problem, the researcher
may use certain words or items that are difficult to
measure and/or the understanding of which may
vary from respondent to respondent.
 In a research study it is important to develop,
define or establish a set of rules, indicators or
yardsticks in order to clearly establish the meaning
of such words/items.

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 It is also important to clearly define the study

population from which the researcher need to
obtain the required information.
 Consider the following main objectives and
critically evaluate them
1. To find out the number of children living below the
poverty line in Ethiopia
2. To measure the effectiveness of training program
designed to help young people.
 What is wrong with both of these objectives?
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 Although both of the above objectives clearly state

the main thrust of the studies, they are not specific in
terms of the main variables to be studied and the
study populations.
 you can not count the number of children living
below the poverty line until you decide what
constitutes the poverty line and how to determine it.
 You can not measure effectiveness until you define
what effectiveness is.

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 On the other hand, it is equally important to decide

exactly what do you mean by “children”- up to
what age will you consider a person to be a child( 5
yrs, 10 yrs, 15 yrs)?
 Similarly whom would you consider as young?
 It is so important to develop operational definitions
for the variable you are studying and for the
population that becomes the source of the
information for the study.

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 In research you need to define concepts and

population clearly in order to avoid ambiguity and
confusion.
 This is achieved through the process of developing
operational/working definition.
 You need to develop operational definitions for the
major concepts you are using in your study and
develop a framework for the study population.

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 Table-1: shows the concepts and the population

groups to be operationalized from the above
objectives.
Concepts to be studied Issue Population to be studied Issue
1-poverty line -what constitutes poverty 1-Children-who would you consider a
child?
line 2-The young- who would you consider
2-Effectivness- what constitutes a
effectiveness? young person?
You must operationalize and define
You must operationalize and define these study populations
these concepts in practical, observable
and measureable terms

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 Operational definitions may differ from dictionary

definitions as well as from day to day meanings of
the words “children or young”
 You need to be more specific while using the words
loosely used in daily life.
 Operational definitions give an operational
meaning to the study population and the concepts
used in your study.

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 Definition of a variable
30

 A concept that can be measured is called a variable.

 A variable is a symbol to which numerals or values are
attached.
 A variable is a rational unit of analysis that can assume
any one of a number of designated sets of values.
 A concept that can be measured on any one of the four
types of measurement scales, which have varying
degrees of precision in measurement is called a
variable (measurement scales will be discussed latter)

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Concept vs. Variable

 Concepts are mental images or perceptions and
therefore their meanings vary markedly from
individual to individual; where as variables are
measurable, of course , with varying degrees of
accuracy. Measurability is the main difference
between a concept and a variable.
 A concept can not be measured where as a variable
can be subjected to measurement with some units of
measurement.
 Concepts are subjective impressions-their
understanding may differ from person to person
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Concept vs. Variable ----

 It is therefore important for concepts to
be converted into variables as they can
be subjected to measurement even though
the degree of precision with which they
can be measured varies from scale to
scale.

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 Con’t
33  Some examples of concept and variable ----
Concept Variable
• Effectiveness • Gender (male, female)
• Satisfaction • Age (x-years, y-months)
. Impact • Income (high level, low
level……..)
. Excellent • Weight
• High achiever • Religion
 All are subjective impressions Are measurable
 No uniformity for understanding
 As such canResearch
not beMethods
measured
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 If you are using a concept in your study, you need to

consider its operationalization-that is how it will be
measured.
 In most cases to operationalize a concept you first
need to go through the process of identifying
indicators- a set of criteria reflective of the concept-
which can then be converted into variables.
 The indicators used by the researcher must have
logical link with the concept.

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 Some concepts such as “rich” can easily be

converted in to indicators and then variables.
 So researcher shall develop indicators of richness
to objectively decide the richness of a person.
 For instance- income and assets can be used as
indicators of richness so that using these indicators
the concept, rich, which can not be measured can
be converted in to measurable variable.

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 Conversion of concepts in to variables
36

Concept Indicators Variables

Concept Indicators Variables Decision level
(Example) ( Working definition)

Rich •Income •Income per year •Rich If > Birr 100,000

•Assets •Total values of assets •Rich If > Birr 250,000

High •Average marks •Percentage of marks •High achiever if > 75%

academic
achievement obtained in
examination

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 Types of variables…
37

 To explain these variables, let you see this example:

 The impact of advertisement on profitability of the
firm •Frequency of ads.
•Quality of ads
Intervening variable

Advertisement Profitability
Independent variable Dependent variable
Extraneous variable
•Attitude towards advertisement
•Level of education of customers
• Stage of economic development
•Income of customers
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 Types of variables…….
38
From the view point of the unit of measurement, there are two ways of
categorizing variables.
1. Categorical variables: are variables that can be measured on nominal
or ordinal measurement scales and Includes:
a) Constant-when a variable can have only one value or category as water,
taxi, etc
b) Dichotomous-when variable can have only two categories as
male/female, yes/no, good/bad, rich/poor, etc.
c) Polytomous- when a variable can be divided in to more than two
categories as religion ( Christian, Muslim, Hindu, buhdisim).
 Note that most of categorical variable are qualitative variables as both
use either nominal or ordinal measurement scales.

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 Types of variables…….
39

2. Continuous variables: are variables having

continuity in their measurement.
Example: age(child, young, old), income (low,
middle, high) etc..
 Note that most of continuous variable are
quantitative variables as both use either interval
or ratio measurement scales.

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 Basic Measurement Issues
40

 Measurement is the process of assigning numbers or

labels to objects, persons, states, or events in
accordance with specific rules to represent quantities
or qualities of attributes.
 Attribute is a single characteristic or fundamental feature
of an object, person, situation, or issue
 We do not measure specific objects, persons, etc., we
measure attributes or features that define them.
 Ex., What defines the person Mr. Abebe? What is a
student’s level of education? How customer oriented
is our company?
 The overriding goal of measurement is to provide a
valid and reliable description or enumeration of the
person, objects, issue, etc.
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 Accuracy of Measurements
41

 Why do scores on a measurement scale differ?

◦ Short-term personal factors (e.g., moods, time
constraints)
◦ Situational factors (e.g., surroundings)
◦ Variations in method of administering survey.
◦ Sampling of items included in the questionnaire.
◦ Lack of clarity in the measurement instrument.
◦ Mechanical or instrumental factors causing completion
errors.

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 Types of measurement scales
42

 Note that the way you measure the variables in your

study determines whether a study is qualitative or
quantitative in nature. It is therefore, important to
know about the measurement scales for variables.
 There are four types of measurement scales.
1. Nominal scale
2. Ordinal scale
3. Interval scale
4. Ratio scale

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 Types of measurement scales..
43

1. Nominal scales: Also called classificatory scale.

 Enables classification of individuals, objects, or
responses based on a common/shared property or
characteristics.
 There is no sequential order for classification.
 A variable measured on nominal scale may have one,
two, or more subcategories depending upon the extent
of variation.
 Example: water and tree (have only one subgroup),
gender (has two subcategories as male and female),
religion and marital status (have more than two
subcategories).
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 Types of measurement scales..
44

2. Ordinal scale: also called ranking scale.

 It has all the properties of a nominal scale plus one

of its own that is it ranks the subgroups in a certain

sequential order (they are arranged in ascending or
descending order)
 Example: Socioeconomic status(low, middle,
upper), income( above average, average, below
average), Attitude (strongly favorable, favorable,
uncertain, unfavorable, strongly unfavorable)

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 Types of measurement scales..
45

3. Interval scale: It has all the properties of ordinal scale

which also includes nominal scale plus it has a unit of
measurement that enables the responses to be placed at
equally spaced intervals in relation to the spread of the
variable
 The scale has its own starting and terminating point
that is divided in to equally spaced units/intervals.
 Example: Temperature (Celsius and Fahrenheit scales
(The gap between the freezing and boiling points is
divided into 100 equally spaced intervals called
degrees. Attitudinal scale 10—20, 21—30, 31—40, 41
—50

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 Types of measurement scales..
46

4. Ratio scale: It has all the properties nominal,

ordinal and interval scale plus it has a fixed starting
point.
 It is an absolute scale-the difference between the

intervals is always measured from a zero point and

hence can be sued for mathematical operations.
 Examples: Income, age, height, weight etc.

A person earning Birr 60,000 per year earns three

times the salary of a person earning Birr 20,000
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 Central Tendency and Dispersion
47

 Central tendency: Mean, mode and media

 Centre of dispersion: Range, SD and Variance, Frequency
distribution
 If a nominal scale is used, analysis of raw data can
only be done using modes and frequency distributions
 If ordinal scales are used, analysis of raw data can be
done using medians and ranges (plus modes and
frequency distributions)
 If interval or ratio scales are used, analysis of raw data
can be done through the use of sample means and
estimated standard deviations as the sample statistic
(plus the above)

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 Measurement Process
48

1. Define concepts to be measured

2. Define attributes of the concepts
3. Select scale of measurement (data type)
4. Generate Items/Questions
 Wording
 Response format
5. Layout and design questionnaire
6. Pretest and refine

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 Likert Scale
49

 A likert scale is an ordinal scale format that asks

respondents to indicate the extent to which they
agree or disagree with a series of mental or
behavioral belief statements about a given object.

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 Likert Scale Example
50

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 Research hypothesis
51

 Hypothesis is an assumption about a phenomena,

relationship or situation, the reality or truth of which you do
not know.
 A hypothesis is a proposition, condition, or principle which
is assumed perhaps without belief, in order to draw out its
logical consequences and this method to test its accord with
facts which are known or may be determined.
 Hypothesis is a proposition that is stated in a testable form
and that predicts a particular relationship between two or
more variables.
 Hypothesis is a tentative statement about something, the
validity of which is usually unknown.
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 Importance of hypothesis
52

1. It places clear and specific goals before the study.

2. It provides direction to research
3. It sensitizes the individual facts and conditions that might
otherwise be overlooked.
4. It is a guide to the thinking process and the process of
discovery.
5. It help to focuses on research.
6. It may enable you to add to the formulation of theory and
help you to bridge the gaps in the body of knowledge.
7. It serves as a framework for drawing conclusions.
8. It prevents from doing a blind research.
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 Characteristics of good hypothesis
53

1. A hypothesis should be simple, specific, and

conceptually clear. A good hypothesis is the one
which is based on the operationally defined
concepts. It should be uni-dimensional, that it
should test only one relationship at a time.
2. It should not be framed as a question- i.e. it
should be framed as a descriptive statement.

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3. A hypothesis should be capable of verification: Methods and techniques

must be available for data collection and analysis. It should be formulated
in a way that it can be tested directly and found to be probably true or
probably false.
4. A hypothesis should be related to the body of knowledge: It is important
that your hypothesis emerges from the existing body of knowledge, and
that it adds to it, as this is an important function of research. This can only
be achieved if the hypothesis has its roots in the existing body of
knowledge.
5. A hypothesis should be operationalisable: That is, it can be expressed in
terms that can be measured. If it can not be measured, it can not be tested
and hence no conclusions can be drawn.

? Consider the following hypothesis and evaluate it. Employees who

received intensive training are more effective than those who didn’t.

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 Chapter Three: Research Design
55

 Once the research problem have been formulated in clear

cut terms, the researcher will be required to prepare a
research design,
 Research design is a conceptual structure within which
research would be conducted. The preparation of such a
design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible
yielding maximal information.
 A research design is the arrangement of conditions for
collection and analysis of data.
 Research design is the conceptual structure within which
research is conducted; it constitutes the blueprint (action
plan) for collection, measurement and analysis of data.
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 Research design is a plan, structure, and strategy of

investigation so conceived as to obtain answers to
research questions or problems.

 Research design is a blue print or detailed plan for

how a research study is to be completed-
operationalising variables, so they can be
measured, selecting a sample of interest to study,
collecting data to be used as a basis for testing
hypothesis and analyzing the results.
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 The validity, reliability and generalisability of your

study will all be influenced by the quality of the
information gathered and the methods used to
gather this information. This is a critical aspect of
the whole research process, and failure to address
this issue correctly can have serious consequences
for any findings generated from your work.

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Research design should include the following:

 The logistical arrangements (organization of the

study)
 The measurement procedures

 The sampling strategy

 The frame of analysis

 Time frame

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 Functions of Research design
59

 Research design has the following main functions:

1. It helps to identify and develop procedures required to

undertake a study
2. It helps to ensure the quality of these procedures about their
validity, objectivity and accuracy.
3. It can help to conceptualize an operational plan to undertake
the various procedures and tasks required to complete the
study.
4. It serves as a road map to the researcher- it shows where to
start where to end and how to get through it.

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 Features of Good Research Design
60

 A research design appropriate for a particular

research problem usually involves the
consideration of the following factors:
 the means of obtaining information
 the availability and skills of the researcher
 the objective of the problem to be studied
 the availability of time and money for the research
work.

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 Types of research design
61

 The various designs have been classified

by examining them from three different
perspectives:
1. The number of contacts with the study
population
2. The reference period of the study

3. The nature of the investigation.

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 Types of research design
62

1) Based on the number of contacts, study designs

can be:
 Cross-sectional study

 Before-and- after study

 Longitudinal studies

2) Based on reference period of the study

 Retrospective study

 Prospective study

 Retro- prospective study

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 Types of research design
63

3) Based on nature of investigation

 Qualitative

 Quantitative

1. Descriptive study

2. Correlational study

3. Causal study

4. Experimental study

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 Sampling and Sample Size Determination
64

 Population: all members of a specified group

 Target population- the population to which the
researcher ideally wants to generalize.
 Accessible population- the population to which the
researcher has access.
 Sample: A subset of population
 Subject: A specific individual participating in a
study.

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 Steps
65

 Definition of target population

 Selection of a sampling frame (list)
 Probability or Non-probability sampling
 Sampling Unit
 Error
– Random sampling error (chance fluctuations)
 Non-sampling error (design errors)

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 Target Population
66

 Who has the information/data you need?

 How do you define your target population?
- Geography
- Demographics
- Use
- Awareness

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 Sampling Frame
67

 List of elements
 Sampling Frame error
 Error that occurs when certain sample elements are not
listed or not represented in the sampling frame

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 Probability or Non-probability
68

 Probability Sample:
 A sampling technique in which every member of the
population will have a known, non-zero probability of
being selected.
 Non-Probability Sample:
 Units of the sample are chosen on the basis of personal
judgment or convenience
 There are NO statistical techniques for measuring
random sampling error in a non-probability sample.
Therefore, generalizability is never statistically
appropriate.

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 Sampling
69

 Sampling is the process of selecting units (e.g.,

people, organizations) from a population of interest
so that by studying the sample you may fairly
generalize your results back to the population from
which they were chosen.
 Sampling theory is a study of relationships existing
between a population and samples drawn from the
population.

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 Sampling
70

 The group you wish to generalize to is often is called the

population /universe
 Population is an aggregate of items possessing a
common trait or traits. It is a complete group of items
about which knowledge is sought. There is a distinction
between the population you would like to generalize to,
and the population that will be accessible to you. We'll
call the former the theoretical population and the latter
the accessible population.
 Furthermore, population could be finite or infinite.
 Similarly, population could be hypothetical or existent.

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 Sampling
71

Sampling Frame: Once you've identified the theoretical and

accessible populations, you have to do one more thing before you
can actually draw a sample -- you have to get a list of the members
of the accessible population. (Or, you have to spell out in detail how
you will contact them to assure representativeness). The listing of
the accessible population from which you'll draw your sample is
called the sampling frame.
Sample: The sample is the group of people (organization) who you
select to be in your study. Notice that it is not said that the sample
was the group of people who are actually in your study. You may
not be able to contact or recruit all of the people you actually
sample, or some could drop out over the course of the study. The
group that actually completes your study is a sub-sample of the
sample.

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 Sampling Design
72

 A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a

sample from a given population. It refers to the
technique or the procedure the researcher would
adopt in selecting items for the sample.
 Sample design may as well lay down the number of
items to be included in the sample i.e., the sample
size.
 Researchers must select/prepare a sample design
which should be reliable and appropriate for his
research.

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 Sampling Design
73

 While developing a sampling design, the researcher

must pay attention to the following points:
1. Defining clearly the population/ universe to be studied.
2. Determination of the sampling unit.( Sampling unit
may be a geographical one such as state, district, village,
etc., or a construction unit such as house, flat, etc., or it
may be a social unit such as family, club, school, etc., or
it may be an individual.
3. Identifying the sampling frame or source list.
(Sampling frame contains the names of all items of
universe).If a source list is not available, a researcher
has to prepare it.

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 Sampling Design
74

4. Determining the sample size. (This refers to determining the

number of items to be selected from the population to constitute
a sample.) An optimum sample size is one which fulfills the
requirements of efficiency, representativeness, reliability and
flexibility.
5. Identifying the parameters of interest (what type of population
characteristic the researcher wants to study i.e., whether
proportion, mean, variation… affects the sample design to be
selected).
6. Determining the Budgetary Constraints (cost consideration has
effect not only on the size of the sample but also on overall
sample design to be pursued).
7. Determining the Sampling Procedure (what type of sample is
to be used that can minimize the sampling error).

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 Sampling techniques
75

 There are different ways of classifying sampling

methods: sometimes they are classified as Random
sampling (where the members of the sample are
chosen by some random mechanism) Quasi-
random sampling (where the mechanism for
choosing the sample is only partly random) Non-
random sampling where the sample is specifically
selected rather than randomly selected.
 However, the dominant classification is the
probability and non-probability continuum.

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 Probability Sampling
76
 A probability sampling method is any method of
sampling that utilizes some form of random selection. In
order to have a random selection method, you must set
up some process or procedure that assures different
units in your population have equal probabilities of
being chosen.
 In case of probability sample method:
 The probability or chance of every unit in the population
being included in the sample is known.
 Selection of the specific units in the population depends
entirely on chance.

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 Types of probability Sampling
77

1. Simple random sampling.

2. Stratified Random Sampling
3. Systematic Random Sampling
4. Cluster (Area) Random Sampling
5. Multi-Stage Sampling

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 Simple Random Sampling
78

 The simplest form of probability sampling is called simple random

sampling. The objective is to select n units out of N such that each
unit has an equal chance of being selected.
Advantages
 It is a more scientific method of taking out samples from the
universe since it eliminates personal bias.
 No advance knowledge of the characteristics of the population is
necessary.
 Assessment of the accuracy of the results is possible by sample
error estimation.
 The sample is true representative of the population.

 It is very easy and easily practicable procedure of selecting samples.

 Provides reliable information for low cost, time and energy.

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 Simple Random Sampling
79

 Simple random sampling should be used with a homogeneous

population. The simple random sample requires less knowledge
about the population than other techniques, but it does have the
following major drawbacks.
 If the population is large, a great deal of time must be spent listing
and numbering the members.
 The sampling method requires complete list of the universe. But
such up-to data list is not available in many enquires which restricts
the use of this method.
 In a field of survey if the area of coverage is fairly large and
geographically scattered it may be quite time consuming and costly
affair to collect the requisite information.
 The selected sample may not be a true representative of the universe
if its size is too small.

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 Stratified Random Sampling
80

 Stratified random sampling, also sometimes called

proportional or quota random sampling, involves dividing
your population into homogeneous subgroups and then
taking a simple random sample in each subgroup.
 Divide the population into non-overlapping groups (i.e.,
strata). Then do a simple random sample from each strata.
 When you use the same sampling fraction within strata we
are conducting proportionate stratified random sampling.
When we use different sampling fractions in the strata, we
call this disproportionate stratified random sampling

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 Stratified Random Sampling
81

 There are several major reasons why you might prefer

stratified sampling over simple random sampling.
 First, it assures that you will be able to represent not
only the overall population, but also key subgroups of
the population, especially small minority groups.
 Second, stratified random sampling will generally have
more statistical precision than simple random
sampling. This will only be true if the strata or groups
are homogeneous. If they are, we expect that the
variability within-groups is lower than the variability
for the population as a whole, stratified sampling
capitalizes on that fact.

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 Stratified Random Sampling
82

 Advantages
 If a correct stratification has been made even a small number of
units will form a representative sample.
 Under stratified sampling no significant group is left
unrepresented.
 It is more precise and to a great extent avoids bias.
 It saves cost and time of data collection since the sample size can
be less.
 Achieves different degree of accuracy for different segments of
the population.
 Replacement of case is easy if the original case is not accessible
to study.
 It is of a great advantage if the distribution of the universe is
skewed.

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 Stratified Random Sampling
83

Disadvantages
 It is a very difficult task to divide the universe into

homogeneous strata.
 If the strata is overlapping, unsuitable or
disproportionate the selection of the sample may not be
representative.
 If stratification is faulty, it can not be corrected by

taking large size of sample.

 Disproportionate stratification requires weighting

which adds complexity and bias.

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 Systematic Random Sampling
84

 Here are the steps you need to follow in order to

achieve a systematic random sample:
 number the units in the population from 1 to N
 decide on the n (sample size) that you want
 k = N/n = the interval size
 randomly select an integer between 1 to k
 then take every kth unit
 For this to work, it is essential that the units in the
population are randomly ordered, at least with respect
to the characteristics you are measuring.

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 Systematic Random Sampling
85

Advantages
 It is fairly easy to do. You only have to select a single
random number to start things off.
 It is very easy to operate and checking can also be done
quickly.
 It may also be more precise than simple random
sampling.
 In some situations there is simply no easier way to do
random sampling.
 Randomness and probability features are present in this
model which makes sample representative.

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 Systematic Random Sampling
86

Disadvantages
 It works well only if the complete and up-to-date

frame is available and if the units are randomly

arranged.
 Any hidden periodicity in the list will adversely

affect the representativeness of the sample.

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 Cluster (Area) Random Sampling

87

 The problem with random sampling methods when we

have to sample a population that is disbursed across a
wide geographic region is that you will have to cover a
lot of ground geographically in order to get to each of
the units you sampled. This problem can be minimized
by the cluster random sampling.
 In cluster sampling, we follow these steps:
 divide population into clusters (usually along
geographic boundaries)
 randomly sample clusters
 measure all units within sampled clusters

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 Cluster (Area) Random Sampling
88

Advantages
 Significant cost gain.
 Easier and more practical method which facilitates the
field work.
Disadvantages
 Probability and the representativeness of the sample
are sometimes affected, if the number of the cluster is
very large.
 The results obtained are likely to be less accurate if the
number of sampling units in each cluster is not
approximately the same.

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 Multi-Stage Sampling
89

 The four methods we've covered so far -- simple,

stratified, systematic and cluster -- are the simplest
random sampling strategies. Sometimes, however,
it is necessary that we have to combine the simple
methods described earlier in a variety of useful
ways that help us address our sampling needs in the
most efficient and effective manner possible.
 When we combine sampling methods, we call this
multi-stage sampling.

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 Multi-Stage Sampling
90

 For example, consider the problem of sampling

students in schools. you might begin with a national
sample of school districts stratified by economics and
educational level. Within selected districts, we might
do a simple random sample of schools. Within schools,
we might do a simple random sample of classes or
grades. And, within classes, we might even do a simple
random sample of students. In this case, we have three
or four stages in the sampling process and we use both
stratified and simple random sampling. By combining
different sampling methods we are able to achieve a
rich variety of probabilistic sampling methods that can
be used in a wide range of social research contexts.
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 Multi-Stage Sampling
91

Advantages
 It is more flexible in comparison to the other methods of
sampling.
 It is simple to carryout and results in administrative
convenience by allowing the field work to be concentrated
and yet covering large area.
 It is of great significant in surveys of underdeveloped areas
where no up-to-date and accurate frame is generally
available for subdivision of the material into reasonably
small sampling units.
 It is reliable and satisfactory technique and by using this
sample surveys can be conducted with considerable speed.

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 Multi-Stage Sampling
92

Disadvantages
 Errors are likely to be large in comparison to

others.
 It is less efficient than a suitable single stage

sampling of the same.

 It involves considerable amount of listing of first

stage units, second stage units etc., though

complete listing of units is not necessary.

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 Non-probability Sampling
The difference between non-probability and
93


probability sampling is that non-probability

sampling does not involve random selection awhile
probability sampling does.
 Does that mean non-probability samples aren't
representative of the population? Not necessarily.
But it does mean that non-probability samples
cannot depend upon the rationale of probability
theory.

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 Non-probability Sampling
94

 In non-probability samples, you may or may not

represent the population well, and it will often be
hard for you to know how well you've done it.
 In general, researchers prefer probabilistic or
random sampling methods over non-probabilistic
ones, and consider them to be more accurate and
rigorous. However, in applied social research there
may be circumstances where it is not feasible,
practical or theoretically sensible to do random
sampling.

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 Non-probability Sampling
95

 In case of non-probability sampling method, the

probability of inclusion of any units of population
in a sample is not known.
 The selection of units within a sample involves
human judgment rather than pure chance.

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 Non-probability Sampling
96

Types:
1. Accidental, Haphazard or Convenience Sampling
One of the most common methods used when:
 The universe is not clearly defined

 Sampling unit is not clear

 A complete source list is not available.

2. Purposive Sampling
 In purposive sampling, you sample with a purpose in mind. you usually
would have one or more specific predefined groups you are seeking.
 Purposive sampling can be very useful for situations where you need to
reach a targeted sample quickly and where sampling for proportionality is
not the primary concern. With a purposive sample, you are likely to get the
opinions of your target population.

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 Non-probability Sampling
97

3. Expert Sampling
 Expert sampling involves the assembling of a sample of
persons with known or demonstrable experience and
expertise in some area. Often, we convene such a sample
under the auspices of a "panel of experts."
 There are two reasons you might do expert sampling.

 First, because it would be the best way to elicit the views of

persons who have specific expertise. In this case, expert
sampling is essentially just a specific sub-case of purposive
sampling.
 The other reason you might use expert sampling is to
provide evidence for the validity of another sampling
approach you've chosen
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 Non-probability Sampling
98

4. Snowball Sampling
 In snowball sampling, you begin by identifying someone
who meets the criteria for inclusion in your study. You
then ask them to recommend others who they may know
who also meet the criteria.
 Snowball sampling is especially useful when you are trying
to reach populations that are inaccessible or hard to find.
 For instance, if you are studying the homeless, you are not
likely to be able to find good lists of homeless people within
a specific geographical area. However, if you go to that area
and identify one or two, you may find that they know very
well who the other homeless people in their vicinity are and
how you can find them.

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 Sample Size
99

 When considering collecting data, it is important to

ensure that the sample contains a sufficient number
of members of the population for adequate analysis
to take place. Larger samples will generally give
more precise information about the population.
Unfortunately, in reality, questions of expense and
time tend to limit the size of the sample.
 Size of the sample can be determined by a
researcher keeping in view the following points:
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 Sample Size
100

1. Nature of the universe: Universe may be either

homogeneous or heterogeneous in nature. If the items of the
universe are homogeneous, a small sample can serve the purpose.
But if the items are heterogeneous, a large sample would be
required.
2. Number of classes proposed: If many class-groups (groups
and sub groups) are to be formed, a large sample would be
required because a small sample might not be able to give a
reasonable number of items in each class groups.
3. Nature of the study: If items are to be intensively and
continuously studied, the sample should be small. For a general
survey the size of the sample should be large, but small sample is
considered appropriate in technical surveys.

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 Sample Size
101

4. Type of sampling: Sampling technique plays an important

role in determining the size of the sample. A small random
sample is apt to be much superior to a larger but badly
selected sample.
5. Standard of accuracy: If the standard of accuracy or the
level of precision is to be kept high, we shall require
relatively larger sample. For doubling the accuracy for a
fixed significance level, the sample size has to be increased.
6. Availability of finance, trained investigators, the condition
under which the sample is being conducted, the time
available for completion of the study are a few other
considerations to which a researcher must pay attention
while selecting the size of the sample.

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