CEREAL TECHNOLOGY 207 3(2-1)

Dr. Dur-e-shahwar Sattar 1

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Theory
1. Cereal grains: Importance, classification, production;
composition, and nutrition of grains (carbohydrates, fats,
proteins, minor constituents).
2. Grain grades and grading.
3. Technical aspects of cereals: storage: basic types, the role of
moisture, and temperature.
4. Processing - dry milling: cleaning, blending, tempering,
conditioning. Grinding process: types of grinding machines;
Sieving process: principles, types of sifters; Milling products:
types, quality, treatment, rheology. Wet milling - production of
starch, oil, protein; Rice: milling, processing, products; The role
of cereals in health and disease; History of cereals in diet,
Nutritional value of cereals, contribution of cereals and cereal
products in diet, cereals in health and disease; Labelling and
health claims; Consumer understanding; Future developments:
fortification, genetic modifications, gene-nutrient interactions.

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Suggested readings
o Hoseney, R.C. 1994. Principles of cereal science and
technology. American Association of Cereal Chemists Inc, St.
Paul, Minnesota, USA.

o Karel, K. and G.P. Joseph. 2000. Handbook of cereal science

and technology (2nd Ed.). Marcel Dekker, New York, NY, USA.

o Kent, N.L. and A.D. Evers. 1994. Technology of cereals.

Pergamon Press, Oxford, UK.

o Wringley L., Corke H. and C.E Walker .2004. Encyclopedia of

cereals grains. Taylor & Francis Ltd.
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"To eat is a
necessity, but to
eat intelligently is a
science"

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Plants for Food

o Approximately ~350,000 plant species exist

o ~195,000 are flowering plants

o ~300 used for food

o ~50 are actively cultivated for food around the world

o World wide 17 different species supply most (90%) of our food

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 What are Cereals?

• Cereals are grasses (members of the family Poaceae, also

known as Gramineae) cultivated for the edible components
of their grain (botanically, a type of fruit called a caryopsis),
composed of the endosperm, germ, and bran

• Cereal grains are grown in greater quantities and provide

more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop;
they are therefore stapled crops
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• In their natural form (as in whole grain), they are a rich
source of vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats, oils,
and protein

• However, when refined by the removal of the bran and

germ, the remaining endosperm is mostly carbohydrate
and lacks the majority of the other nutrients.

• In some developing nations, grain in the form of rice,

wheat, millet, or maize constitutes a majority of daily
sustenance.

• In developed nations, cereal consumption is moderate

and varied but still substantial
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o Cereals: Important sources of dietary protein,
carbohydrates, the B complex of vitamins, vitamin E,
iron, trace minerals, and fiber

o The cereal grasses provide the grains that are the staple
foods of most of the mankind

o Cereals can be grown almost anywhere in the world

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 NUTRITIVE VALUE OF
CEREALS
• Useful amount of protein
• Small amount of saturated fat
• Lots of energy
• Vitamin B group for nerves and energy
• Calcium and Phosphorous for bones
• Iron for blood
• Little water so that easily stored.
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o The starch of a cereal (carbohydrate) provides energy

o World-wide, humans acquire over 1/2 of proteins from

cereals

o Poorer areas consume more cereals than developed

areas. Developed areas have less cereals in their diet
and more fats, animal protein, etc

o Cereals are not an adequate source of protein on 10their

own as they are deficient in certain essential amino acids 10
PRODUCTION OF CEREAL

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Below are cereals
Wheat Triticum aestivum
Rice Oryza sativa
Corn Zea mays
Barley Hordeum vulgare
Millet Pennisetum typhodium
Sorghum Sorghum bicolor
Oat Avena sativa
Rye Secale cereale
Triticale Triticosecale ( man made)
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 ‫مکئی‬
Maize
• Maize is widely cultivated throughout the world, and a greater
weight of maize is produced each year than any other grain. In
2021, total world production was 1.2 billion tonnes. Maize is
the most widely grown grain crop throughout the Americas,
with 384 million metric tons grown in the United States alone in
2021..

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Rice ‫چاول‬

• More than 90 percent of the world's rice is grown in

Asia, principally in China, India, Indonesia, and
Bangladesh, with smaller amounts grown in Japan,
Pakistan, and various Southeast Asian nations.
Rice is also cultivated in parts of Europe, in North
and South America, and in Australia

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Wheat

• In 2020, the total global production of wheat was 760

million tons. China, India, and Russia are the three
largest individual wheat producers in the world, accounting
for about 41% of the world's total wheat production. The
United States is the fourth-largest individual wheat
producer in the world.

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Top 10 Wheat Producing Countries

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 Barley ‫جو‬

• U.S. producers harvested 2.2 million acres of barley in

2020 with an average yield of 77.2 bushels/acre. Total
production in 2020 was 170.8 million bushels.
(NASS, 2020). In 2021, Montana, Idaho, and North
Dakota were the largest producers of barley

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 ‫جوار‬
Sorghum

• The sorghum crop is believed to have first been

cultivated in Africa and introduced into the Americas by
slave traders. Now, it is a staple food source in many
countries, particularly in arid regions of the world taking
advantage of its hardiness. Sorghum is currently grown for
use primarily as a food and feed source.

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Millet ‫باجرا‬

• Millet production is generally limited to fields with

low soil fertility and poor rainfall conditions.
Although millet production is only about 2% of the
world cereal production, it is an important staple
food crop in semi-arid regions. Asia and Africa
account for about 95% of the total millet production
in the world.

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Oats ‫جو‬

• The European Union was the largest producer of

oats in the world in 2020 followed by Canada and
Russia. The European Union was the largest
producer of oats in the world in 2020 followed by
Canada and Russia. Four (4) countries produced
over 1 million metric tons of oats in 2020: EU,
Canada, Russia & Australia.

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Rye ‫رائی‬

• The United States is a significant producer of rye. In

2020 the U.S. produced roughly 11.5 million
bushels of rye that was valued at approximately
$59.8 million. The marketing year average price for
rye in the U.S. in 2020 was $5.20 per bushel. The
national average yield for rye is around 35 bu per
acre.

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Triticale
Triticale is a man-made cereal grain
species derived from hybridization of wheat
and rye. It was developed to combine favorable
traits from both parents; growth vigor, cold
tolerance and high protein from rye, and good
baking characteristics of wheat gluten.

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Characteristics of cereal grains

o Good (cheap) source of nutrients

o Relatively productive in term of land use

o Wide rang of products can be prepared

o Longer storage stability

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World utilization of cereal grains

o As food 66%

o As feed 20%

o Industrial 7%

o Seed 7%
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Utilization of cereal grains in
Pakistan

o Food 85%
o Others 15%

o Staple food
o Cheapest and principal source of calories
o More than 60% of protein and calories are derived
from cereals
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Contribution of cereals in
global nutrition
Cereals Maize
70% 22% Rice
16%

Animal & fish

Wheat 8%
products
21%
4%
Legumes, oilseeds
7%
Others 6%
11% Roots & tubers
3% Sugar

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Fruits 2% Other Vegetables &
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melons
Threats to global cereal
production
• The climatic changes

• Diseases and insect pests

• Land area decreasing and soil loss increasing

• Biofuels are replacing food crops

• Post harvest losses

• Losses during storage

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Cereal Grains and our health
o Cereal-based foods may cause dietary problems
(gluten intolerance)

o Celiac disease, a condition caused by the ingestion

of gluten proteins

o Not a good sources of quality protein

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 ASSIGNMENT

• 1. DISCUSS CELIAC DISEASES AND GLUTEN

INTOLERANCE

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Wheat
• Wheat is a staple crop for a significant proportion of the world’s
population.
• Wheat is rich in carbohydrates, protein, essential vitamins and
minerals such as vitamins B and E, calcium and iron, and fibre.
• It is the world’s most widely cultured crop occupying 22% of
cultivated areas.
• Wheat is prominent among the cereals
• Unique dough-forming properties
• The gluten protein-viscoelastic properties
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• It is the major crop in the USA, Canada, and Asia,
it is a C3 crop not well adapted to tropical and
subtropical conditions.
• As many as 25 species are recognized in the
world, but only 3 species namely,
T.aestivum/vulgare (Bread wheat), T.durum
(Macroni wheat) & T. dicoccum (Emmer wheat)
commercially grown in India
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 DIFFERENT TYPES OF
WHEAT
• Wheat is primarily classified according to its
growing season.
• Winter Wheat – planted in the fall, harvested in
the spring.
• Spring Wheat – planted in the spring, harvested in
late summer or early fall.

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• Beyond the growing season, wheat is further
categorized according to its
hardness (hard/soft), color (red/white), and
shape of its kernel

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Major Cultivated species of Wheat

Durum wheat (Triticum turgidum subsp. Durum) Pasta (e.g.,

spaghetti, macaroni)
Einkorn (T. monococcum) – A diploid species with wild and
cultivated variants. Domesticated at the same time as
emmer wheat, but never reached the same importance.
Common wheat or Bread wheat (T. aestivum) – A
hexaploid species that is the most widely cultivated in the
world.
Emmer (T. dicoccum) – A tetraploid species, cultivated in
ancient times but no longer in widespread use.
Spelt (T. spelta) – Another hexaploid species cultivated in
limited quantities

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Six types of Wheat

• Durum – Very hard, translucent, light-colored

grain used to make semolina flour for pasta.

• Hard Red Spring – Hard, brownish, high-protein

wheat used for bread and hard baked goods. Bread
Flour and high-gluten flours are commonly made
from hard red spring wheat.

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 Conti…
• Hard Red Winter – Hard, brownish, mellow
high-protein wheat used for bread, hard baked
goods and as an adjunct in other flours to
increase protein in pastry flour for pie crusts.

• Soft Red Winter – Soft, low-protein wheat

used for cakes, pie crusts, biscuits, and muffins.
Cake flour, pastry flour, and some self-rising
flours with baking powder and salt added, for
example, are made from soft red winter wheat.
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 Conti…

• Hard White – Hard, light-colored, opaque, chalky,

medium-protein wheat planted in dry, temperate
areas. Used for bread and brewing.
• Soft White – Soft, light-colored, very low protein
wheat grown in temperate moist areas. Used for pie
crusts and pastry. Pastry flour, for example, is
sometimes made from soft white winter wheat

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Wheat Grain Structure & Composition

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Structure of Cereals:The Wheat Grain
A grain of wheat is a seed which
can grow into a new wheat plant.
It is also the part of the wheat
plant which is processed into
flour, a major foodstuff, and the
basic ingredient of bread

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PARTS OF A WHEAT GRAIN
1- Bran
o 14.5% of whole grain
o It contain five layers
Epidermis
Epicarp Pericarp
Endocarp
Episperm or testa
Aleurone cells
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 Pericarp
o Immature pericarp helps in the transport of nutrients to
other parts of grain
o Mature pericarp gives protection to endosperm
o High in fiber
o Low in proteins
o Low in lipids except rice grain pericarp
o Devoid of starch except sorghum
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 Episperm or testa
o Contain colouring matter that distinguishes the
berry as being of red or white

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Aleurone layer
o Help in synthesis and transport of nutrients
o Devoid of starch
o High in protein
o High content of vitamin B
o Low in fiber
o High in lipid contents

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2- Endosperm
o 83% of whole grain
o High in starch
o Low in fiber
o Low in ash
o Low in lipids except oat
o Low in proteins

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3- Germ
o 2-3% of whole grain
o Reproductive part
o High in sugar
o Devoid of starch
o High in proteins (enzymatic)
o High in lipids
o High in ash
o High in B vitamin except wheat 46
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 Composition of Wheat Grain
1- Moisture
o At harvesting 8-13%
o Increases in rainy season
o Decreases in dry season
o Vital role in wheat quality

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2-Proteins
o Varies from 8-15%
o Variation is due to
- Rainfall
- Climate
- R.H
- Fertilizers
- Irrigations
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3-Ash
o 1.0-2.5%
o Influenced by
- Grain size
- Grain shape

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4-Crude fiber
o 1-3.5%
o Influenced by
- Grain size
- Grain shape

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5- Fat
o 1-3%
o Sometimes <2%

 1% protein is removed during milling and some other

nutrients are also lost

 White flour is inferior to whole wheat flour

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Caryopsis/fruit/kernel

o Wheat grain is also called Caryopsis

o Commonly called as grain or kernel
o Caryopsis comprises of fruit coat + seed coat+ seed
o Seed comprises of endosperm + germ + seed coat

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Enrichment

• Addition of nutrients that are lost during processing to

fulfill the deficiency is called enrichment.

Fortification
• Addition of nutrients that are already deficient in flour
is called as fortification.

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 Wheat Quality

o Complex term
o Can not define singly
o Depends on factors for which it is intended to be used
o In general “ wheat quality is the suitability for a specific
product”
• Suitable-Good quality
• Not suitable-Poor quality 54
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 What is Quality Wheat?

For a farmer
o High yield

o Disease and insect Resistance

o Good grade

o More selling price

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For a miller
o Less impurities

o Less bran

o Ease in milling

o Less power requirement

o Flour yield (% extraction)

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For a baker

o Higher water holding flour

o Good loaf volume

o Require less mixing time

o Soft product

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For a consumer

• Good appearance and colour

• Soft product

• More shelf life

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 Wheat Marketing - The Present

o Processors are becoming more sophisticated – increased

automation

o Wheat purchased using grading and non-grading or

marketing factors

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 Wheat Marketing - The Future?

o Increased market demands for specific wheat

varieties, quality, and performance

o Organic wheat

o Genetically modified/Non-GM wheat

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Rice
o Rice is the seed of the monocot plants Oryza sativa

• Consumed whole grain, after removal of the bran layers

o 90% of the world’s rice production in Asia- developing

countries.

o Prices vary greatly depending on the type of rice.

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• It is a staple food for half of the world’s population and provides
dietary energy and protein up to 75% to 2.5 billion people of
the world

• rice provides 23% of the global human per capita energy and
16% of the per capita protein

• Rice is free of gluten and cholesterol and contains traces of fat

and sodium contents. It contains complex carbohydrates and it
is easily digestible
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o Basmati scented rice from Pakistan and north-west India get 4 times the
domestic price of ‘‘ordinary’’ rice.

o Quality grades based on dimensions; long, medium, short

o Quality attributes relate to the milled grain: shape, color, translucency, and
uniformity, and also the absence of broken grains.

o Paddy is de-hulled and milled to remove the bran layers, leaving white grain.

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o Brown rice, less popular for eating, retains the bran layers, together
with added nutrients.

o Indica types – long, drier, flaky quality

o Japonica types- Short, become sticky on cooking,

o Products made from rice; parboiled, rice crackers and noodles, rice
cakes and snack foods, rice flour, and fermented drinks (sake / rice
wine)
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 Pakistani Super Kernal Basmati is famous for its
fragrance and delicate flavor

Indica (left) vs Japonica rice (right)

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 Maize (Corn)
o Cheap form of starch

o Major energy source of animal feed

o 4 major categories:

o Dent maize dent in the kernel crown

o Flint maize hard, round kernels
o Sweet corn a dent type maize
o Pop corn flint type-expands
on heating 66
How does popcorn pop?

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How Microwave Popcorn
Works

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Originally, popcorn was made by directly heating the kernels. Bags of
microwave popcorn are a bit different because the energy comes from
microwaves rather than infrared radiation. The energy from the
microwaves makes the water molecules in each kernel move faster,
exerting more pressure on the hull until the kernel explodes. The
microwave popcorn bag helps trap the steam and moisture so the corn
can pop more quickly. Each bag is lined with flavors so when a kernel
pops, it strikes the side of the bag and gets coated. Some microwave
popcorn presents a health risk not encountered with regular popcorn
because the flavorings are also affected by the microwave and get into
the air.
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Uses

o Breakfast cereals

o Tortilla

o Cornbread

o Porridge, snack foods,

o A wide range of industrial uses (e.g., corn syrup, food ingredients)

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Barley

o Prophet Muhammad (SAW) food

o Appeared on Greek coins several centuries BC

o Staple diet of Roman gladiators, who were known

as hordearii (reflecting the origins of the genus
name, Hordeum).
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• Barley is a wonderfully versatile cereal grain with a rich nutlike flavor
and an appealing chewy, pasta-like consistency

• Its appearance resembles wheat berries, although it is slightly lighter

in color

• Sprouted barley is naturally high in maltose, a sugar that is the basis

for both malt syrup sweeteners.

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• A member of the grass family that serves as major animal fodder,
as a base malt for beer and certain distilled beverages, and as a
component of various health foods

• It is used in soups and stews, and in barley bread of various

cultures

• Like wheat and rye, barley contains gluten which makes it an

unsuitable grain for consumption by those with celiac disease73
Barley classification

(a) hulled, six-row

(b) hulled, two-row
(c) hull-less

• Hull-less barley have a higher digestibility (94%) than

the hulled types (83%).

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Waxy barley
• All the starch is in the form of amylopectin

• It is of interest as a possible replacement for tapioca starch.

High amylose barley

• A high amylose barley, in which about 40% of the starch is in

the form of amylose

• Useful in the manufacture of malt whisky.

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Uses

o Functional food (Beta-glucan)

o Malting and brewing (Scotch, Whiskey)

o Pearled barley in soups

o Bread

o Porridge

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o Animal feed
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Oat

o Compared to the other cereal grains, the oat grain

tends to have:
o Higher contents of protein
o Lipids
o Soluble fiber (Beta-glucan)
o Beneficial hypocholesterolemic properties
o Manages insulin response in diabetics

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Uses
o Ready to eat breakfast cereal

o Oat meal cookies

o Porridge

o Oat cakes

o Cosmetics

o Adhesives 79
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• Different types of processing are used to produce
the various types of oat products, which are
generally used to make breakfast cereals, baked
goods and stuffings;

• Oat groats: unflattened kernels that are good for

using as a breakfast cereal or for stuffing

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• Steel-cut oats: featuring a dense and chewy
texture, they are produced by running the grain
through steel blades that thinly slices them

• Old-fashioned oats: have a flatter shape that is the

result of their being steamed and then rolled
•
• Quick-cooking oats: processed like old-fashioned
oats, except they are cut finely before rolling
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• Instant oatmeal: produced by partially cooking the grains
and then rolling them very thin

• Oat bran: the outer layer of the grain that resides under the
hull. While oat bran is found in rolled oats and steel-cut oats

• Oat flour: used in baking, it is oftentimes combined with

wheat or other gluten-containing flours when making
leavened bread
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Problem with oat processing

o Higher content of lipid (fats)

o Significant lipase activity (fat-splitting enzyme)

o After milling, fat rancidity, bitterness, and a soapy Taste

o To prevent this, it is usual for milled oats to undergo some

form of heat treatment to inactivate the lipase activity. This is
often done by steam treatment 83
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 Sorghum and the Millets

o Major sources of protein and energy for many

people in Africa and Asia
o Principal sources of energy, protein, vitamins and
minerals for millions of the poorest people in these
regions
o Grains are used as porridge, boiled in water after
grinding
o Used as animal feed
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Rye

o Only cereal grain that approaches wheat with respect to bread-making properties

o Popular human diet in Europe.

o Rye breads, flaked rye

o Offers high level of pentosans - soluble fiber

o Helps in slimming diets as well as reducing the rate of rise in the blood sugar
level Susceptible to contamination with fungi
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• Rye bread, including pumpernickel, is a widely eaten food in Northern
and Eastern Europe

• Rye is also used to make the familiar crisp bread

• Rye flour has enough gliadin, but not enough glutenin, and therefore it
has a lower gluten content than wheat flour, and contains a higher
proportion of soluble fiber

• Other uses of rye include rye whiskey and an alternative medicine known
as rye extract. Rye straw is used to make corn dollies
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Triticale

o Only made cereal

o Formed by crossing wheat and rye

o Possesses winter hardiness of rye and baking

properties of wheat

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• Triticale has potential in the production of bread
and other food products, such as cookies, pasta,
pizza dough and breakfast cereals
• The protein content is higher than that of wheat,
although the glutenin fraction is less
• The grain has also been stated to have higher levels
of lysine than wheat

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 Why Triticale is Formed?

o Cereal grains are deficient in lysine (first limiting amino

acid in cereal grains)

o Scientist consider that rye contains relatively higher

lysine than all other grains

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o Wheat is considered as No.1 food grain crop according
to the production and consumption
o It possesses the unique properties of forming
viscoelastic dough
o So Triticale is made to get the following objectives
o Higher lysine level
o Similar baking quality to that of wheat

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General composition of cereal grains

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 Comparative nutritive value of cereal grains
Wheat Maize Brown Barley Sorghum Oat Pearl Rye
rice millet
Available CHO (%) 69.7 63.6 64.3 55.8 62.9 62.9 63.4 71.8

Energy (kJ/100 g) 1570 1660 1610 1630 1610 1640 1650 1570

Digestible energy (%) 86.4 87.2 96.3 81.0 79.9 70.6 87.2 85.0

Vitamins (mg/100 g)
Thiamin 0.45 0.32 0.29 0.10 0.33 0.60 0.63 0.66

Riboflavin 0.10 0.10 0.04 0.04 0.13 0.14 0.33 0.25

Niacin 3.7 1.9 4.0 2.7 3.4 1.3 2.0 1.3

Amino acids (g/16 g N)
Lysine 2.3 2.5 3.8 3.2 2.7 3.0 2.7 3.7
Threonine 2.8 3.2 3.6 2.9 3.3 3.6 3.2 3.3
Methionine. 3.6 3.9 3.9 3.9 2.8 4.8 3.6 3.7
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Tryptophan 1.0 0.6 1.1 1.7 1.0 0.9 1.3 1.0
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Improvement of Protein and Lysine in Food

o In Pakistan more than 60% protein and calories of total

requirement are derived from cereals

o Soybean is rich in lysine but deficient in methionine. It

contains 40% protein

o Cereals are rich in methionine but deficient in lysine

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o First approach is the addition of protein and lysine in food artificially

o Second approach is to develop lines that possess high protein and lysine

o Hiproley and RISO M 1508 (lines of barley) contain high lysine and
protein

o Now breeders are working and crossing these to obtain the better
varieties

o Yield and protein have negative correlation and this is the main hurdle in
this work 94
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• Legumes contain methionine, cysteine and
tryptophan in low amount but they are present in
high amount in cereals. Similarly, pulse have high
amount of lysine compared to cereals. Therefore,
the combination of legumes and cereals in diet
deliver the essential amino acids which are
beneficial for proper human diet

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