8th Grade

MICROORGANISMS

BY : FAHAD MUHAMMAD
WHAT ARE MICROORGANISMS
A wide variety of living organisms live among us and also inside us. Some are large,
while some are small enough to be seen only under a microscope. The tiny ones
include millions of single-celled organisms called microorganisms or microbes.
Some of them are useful, while others are harmful and may cause diseases.
TYPES OF MICROORGANISMS
There are five major groups of microorganisms

● Bacteria (singular : Bacterium)

● Viruses
● Protozoa (singular : Protozoan)
● Fungi (singular : Fungus)
● Algae (singular : Alga)
Bacteria
Bacteria were among the first living things to appear on the earth. They can be found
in almost all environments and inside organisms. Bacteria are of several shapes. Some
are spherical (cocci), some are spiral (spirilla) and some are rod-shaped (bacilli).
Examples of bacteria include Streptococcus and Lactobacillus.
Viruses
Viruses infect all life forms. They come in various shapes and sizes, and can be seen
only with the help of powerful microscopes. Some examples of viruses are the
papillomavirus, which can cause cancer, and the varicella zoster virus (chickenpox
virus).
Protozoa
Protozoa are single-celled organisms that thrive in soil and aquatic environments.
Amoeba and Euglena are some examples of protozoa.
Fungi
Fungi are plant-like organisms that do not contain chlorophyll. Some examples of fungi
are mushrooms and yeast.
algae
Algae include single-celled and multicellular organisms. they are simple plant-like
organisms found in water bodies, rock and snow. Spirogyra and chlorella are some
examples of algae.
"Where are Microorganisms Found?
Microorganisms are found in almost every kind of environment, including inside
other organisms! A single gram of soil can contain anywhere from 100 million to
1000 million bacteria, while the collections of dead cells on your scalp contain 500
million or more bacteria. The air you breathe, the clothes you wear, your skin,
fingernails, and even your intestines, harbor microorganisms.
Conditions for the Growth of Microorganisms

Different microorganisms have different needs; they grow under a wide

range of conditions.

Oxygen : Many microorganisms require oxygen for respiration (are aerobic).

However, many others, like yeast and the tetanus-causing bacterium, do not require
oxygen for respiration (are anaerobic).

Water : Moisture is essential for most microorganisms to thrive.

Suitable temperature : Some microorganisms can tolerate and grow at extreme

temperatures of -10 °C or above 100 °C. But in general, microorganisms thrive
between 25 °C and 38 °C.
Dark places : Many microorganisms thrive in dark places. Direct sunlight often kills
them. However, photosynthetic microorganisms need light to grow.

Suitable food supply : Microorganisms live and feed on a wide range of materials.
Some are saprophytes (most fungi and some bacteria) and are responsible for the
decay and decomposition of dead organisms. Others, like some bacteria, fungi and
protozoa, are parasites and obtain food from the tissues of their host organisms.
Some bacteria, protozoa and algae can photosynthesize.
Useful microorganisms
Microorganisms are useful to us in many ways.
Increasing Soil Fertility
Bacteria and fungi decompose dead organisms and organic matter like dung, straw
and grass. They thus enable the nutrients in dead organisms and organic waste to go
back to the soil. This not only prevents the accumulation of dead organic matter in
the soil but also increases soil fertility.

Microorganisms have a very important role to play in the fixing of nitrogen. Plants
such as beans, peas and soya bean, belonging to the legume family, have swollen
parts in their roots called nodules.

Different species of Rhizobium bacterium live in these swellings and convert

nitrogen to ammonia. This process is called nitrogen fixation. This helps to make the
soil rich in nitrogen compounds, which are essential for the growth of plants.
Nitrogen fixation
Nitrogen is the most abundant element (makes up nearly 78% of the volume of air)
in the Earth's atmosphere. It is a vital element for living organisms since it is a
component of important molecules such as proteins. However, atmospheric nitrogen
cannot be used directly by most organisms.

Plants can use nitrogen only in the form of nitrate (NO) or ammonium (NH,*)
compounds. But these compounds are available in limited quantity in the soil. As
crop plants generally require relatively large amounts of nitrogen for their growth,
these compounds in the soil get used up.
Some bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia (NH).
Some nitrogen-fixing bacteria convert ammonia into nitrites, and
others convert nitrites into nitrates. This process is called
nitrification. The latter bacteria are called nitrifying bacteria or
nitrifiers. They make the soil rich in nitrates.

Many bacteria and fungi decompose organic matter and release

fixed nitrogen for reuse by other organisms.

All these processes contribute to the nitrogen cycle.

Nitrogen cycle
As you have read, nitrifying bacteria fix ammonia in the soil in the form of nit rates. In
addition, small amounts of nitrogen and oxygen combine in the atmosphere during
lightning to form nitrogen oxides. The same happens during combustion in factories or in
engines of motor vehicles. These oxides react with rain water to form dilute nitric acid.
The nitric acid reacts with minerals in the soil to form nitrates.

Plants take in nitrates through their roots and assimilate them into proteins. Animals obtain
the proteins they need by eating plants or the flesh of other animals.

When plants and animals eventually die, the nitrogen compounds—proteins and so on—
are broken don’t to give ammonia. This process is known as ammonification. The
ammonia produced can enter different processes.
Some bacteria directly break down ammonia to release atmospheric nitrogen.
Nitrifying bacteria convert (fix) ammonia into nitrates. Nitrates may be stored in
humus and taken up again by plants or leached-from the soil and carried to lakes and
streams. They may also be converted to free nitrogen by denitrifying bacteria through
a process called denitrification. The nitrogen is returned to the atmosphere.

This process of circulation of nitrogen between the atmosphere, soil, plants and
animals is called the nitrogen cycle.
Cleaning the environment
Raw sewage containing feces and urine is a health hazard. Bacteria break down raw
sewage into harmless and even useful substances, which can be used in landfills. they
can also be used to replenish the soil with nitrates and phosphates. and also improve
the soil’s water retention capacity.

In the villages of some countries like India and China, biogas fermenters are used to
produce methane. Human and animal feces and leafy waste from crops are broken
down by bacteria in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic conditions) to produce methane
(biogas), a valuable fuel for cooking and lighting.
Commercial uses of microorganisms
Fermentation

Fermentation is the breakdown of substances by the activity of fungi and bacteria,

usually leading to the production of carbon dioxide and alcohol/acid. Alcohol is
made by the fermentation of sugar using yeast. Yeast is used to ferment sugars in
grapes to make wine. Sugars in rice and barley are fermented to produce beer.

Yeast is used in bakeries to make bread. When it is added to dough, it produces

carbon dioxide, which makes the dough rise. Bread made from the dough is soft and
fluffy due to the gas. Yeast is also used to make dhokla light and fluffy.
Idli and dosa are made by grinding rice and pulses to a fine paste. The mixture is
allowed to stand for a few hours. Fermentation occurs naturally due to bacteria in the
mixture.
Retting of fibres
Linen is made from fibres obtained from the flax plant. Similarly, jute fibres are
obtained from jute plants. The plants are tied in bundles and placed in water.
Bacteria enter the stems and gradually destroy the stem tissues, loosening the
supporting fibres. This is known as retting. These fibres are used to make threads.
Production of leather
The action of microbes was traditionally used in the leather-making industry.
During the processing of hide ( animal skin ) to produce leather, the action of
bacteria on the skins makes them soft and pliable.
Food industry
Making of curd and cheese

Some bacteria break down lactose (milk sugar) to form lactic acid, which turns milk
sour. Lactic acid acts on casein, a protein present in milk. This helps in the
formation of curd.

the making of cheese is similar in some ways. Bacteria convert the lactose found in
milk to lactic acid. An enzyme is added to set the curd. The semi-solid curdled
material is separated from the fluid and is made into cheese. Fungi and bacteria act
on fresh cheese and give it its characteristic smell and flavour.
Making of vinegar
Yeast cells break down the sugar found in fruits and convert it into alcohol. Bacteria
act on this alcohol to form vinegar.
As a stabilizer and a thicker
Algae are used in the preparation of agar ( vegetarian gelatin ). Sodium compounds
obtained from algae keep ice cream smooth and free of crystals. Products from algae
are also used as food stabilizers and as a thickener in salad dressings
As a source of food
Algae are potentially an unlimited source of wholesome and nutritious food. In
China and Japan, many types of seaweed are consumed as food. Chlorella is a
single-celled spherical alga that has been the subject of research in the study of
photosynthesis and as a source of human food (especially on space flights).
Making of antibiotics
An antibiotic is a substance that kills microorganisms or stops their grow Fungi
secrete antibiotics such as penicillin and cephalosporin, while bacteria
secrete the antibiotics streptomycin, chloramphenicol and tetracycline. Antibiotics
can kill disease-causing microorganisms without severe side effects such as injury
to body tissues or disturbance of body functions. Today, over a hundred different
antibiotics are available to doctors to cure anything from minor illnesses to life-
threatening infections. Each antibiotic works differently and acts on different types
of bacteria.

Antibiotics are also used to cure plant and animal diseases. They are mixed with
food to cure microbial infections in livestock (poultry and cattle).
Immunity and making of vaccines
A foreign substance or a disease-causing microbe that enters our body is called an
antigen. Our body produces proteins, called antibodies, to attack and destroy the
antigen.

Antibodies produced against a particular antigen are specific and will attack only
that antigen. For example, antibodies produced against the measles virus will not
attack typhoid bacteria.

The ability of our body to resist infection is known as Immunity.

Immunity
• Immunity against some diseases may be natural, that is, inherited from parents.
• Immunity against some diseases is acquired after recovering from an attack of
the disease, as in the case of measles md chickenpox. Once you have recovered
form these diseases, the antibodies. Remain in the blood for a short time.
However, the ability to produce the antibodies again is greatly increased.
Therefore, any further infection by the bacterium or virus is likely to be
stopped, and you are immune to the disease.
● Immunity against a particular disease can also be induced in the body by
introducing dead weakened microbes of the disease. This substance induced into
the body is called a vaccine. The body recognizes the antigen and produces
antibodies against it. This technique is called vaccination or immunization.
Through this process, it is now possible to be protected against a number of
infectious diseases like tetanus, typhoid, polio, measles and hepatitis B.
Making of vaccines
Vaccines can be a dose of:

● Dead microbes, as in the case of cholera and typhoid vaccines.

● Live microbes, which have been altered so that they are no longer dangerous
and cannot cause the disease, as in the case of polio and measles vaccines.

● Toxoids, harmless forms of the toxins (poisonous substances) produced by

disease-causing germs, as in the case of the tetanus vaccine.

All vaccines are made from microorganisms.

Harmful microorganisms
Many kinds of microorganisms cause diseases in humans. Such microorganisms are
called pathogens.

Diseases caused by microorganisms and transmitted from an infected person or

animal to another person or animal are called communicable diseases or infectious
diseases.
Communicable diseases are carried from in a number of ways. The person to
person in a number of main sources of infection are:

● Through direct contact with a sick person, as in the case of ringworm and chickenpox.

● Through air, also known as droplet infection, as in the common cold and flu. When a sick
person sneezes or coughs, microbes are released into the air. These can infect a healthy
person breathing the air.

● Through insects such as flies, fleas and mosquitoes, which are carriers' of microbes. When a
mosquito bites an infected human, it carries microbes with it and transfers them to any
healthy person it bites afterwards. Diseases such as malaria, dengue fever and yellow fever
spread in this way. Fleas transfer the bacterium that causes bubonic plague from rats to
humans. Flies carry microbes from contaminated food to clean food
● Through contaminated food and water, as in cholera and typhoid For example, the parasites
that cause amoebic dysentery enter the water when an infected person passes faeces near a
water body. Other people get infected when they use the water from such a source.

● Through animal bites, as in the case of rabies. The bite of an infected dog can spread the
disease to a human.

● Through cuts and wounds, as in the case of tetanus.

● Through insects such as flies, fleas and mosquitoes, which are carriers' of microbes. When a
mosquito bites an infected human, it carries microbes with it and transfers them to any
healthy person it bites afterwards. Diseases such as malaria, dengue fever and yellow fever
spread in this way. Fleas transfer the bacterium that causes bubonic plague from rats to
humans. Flies carry microbes from contaminated food to clean food.
Yellow Fewer Droplet Infection Malaria

Cholera Typhoid Dengue

Different pathogens act in different ways. Some produce toxins, while others invade cells
or tissues, and then produce toxins. The symptoms of the disease appear only after a brief
lapse of time, during which the microbes multiply rapidly. The period between the
infection and the appearance of symptoms is called the incubation period. The symptoms
may be fever, headache, nausea, vomiting, rashes and so on.

● Viruses cause diseases such as the common cold, measles and influenza. These diseases
spread through the air.

● Fungi and bacteria grow on food, releasing toxic substances and spoiling the food. This
leads to food poisoning.

● Bacteria cause pneumonia, tetanus, tuberculosis and cholera.

● Protozoa cause malaria and amoebic dysentery.

● Microorganisms also cause diseases in plants and animals.

● Leaf mosaic viruses enter and damage the outer cells of leaves.

● Potato blight in potato plants is caused by a fungus.

● Mildew in grapes, roses, gooseberries and other flowering plants is caused by fungi.

● Rust in wheat and other cereals is caused by fungi.

● Foot-and-mouth disease in cattle is caused by a virus.