BJMC -IV

Steps in sampling design

y Type of Universe y Sampling Unit y Source list y Size of sample y Parameters of interest y Budgetary constraint y Sampling procedure

Step 1: Define the Population/Universe

A population must be defined in terms of elements, sampling units, extent and time. In relation to these constituent parts, the population of purchasing agent is (element) sampling unit is the companies and governmental agencies that have bought any of their products (extent) in the last three years (time).

Step 2: Specify the Source list/Sampling Frame

y If a probability sample is to be taken, a sampling frame is required. A sampling frame is a means of representing the elements of the population. A sampling frame maybe a telephone book, a city directory, an employee roster, a listing of all students attending a university, or a list of all possible phone numbers. y Maps also serve frequently as sampling frames. A sample of areas within a city may be taken and another sample of households may then be taken within each area. y A perfect sampling frame is one in which every element of the population is represented once but only once.

Step 3: Specify Sampling Unit

The sampling unit is the basic unit containing the elements of the population to be sampled. It may be the element itself or a unit in which the element is contained. For example, if one wanted a sample of males over 13 years of age, it might be possible to sample them directly. In this case, the sampling unit would be identical with the element. However, it might be easier to select households as the sampling unit and interview all males over 13 years of age in each household. Here the sampling unit and the population element are not the same.

Step 4: Selection of Sampling Method

y The sampling method is the way the sample units are

to be selected. Five basic choices must be made in deciding on a sampling method: y Probability vs. non-probability, y Single unit vs. cluster of units, y Unstratified vs. stratified, y Equal unit probability vs. unequal unit probability, and y Single stage vs. multistage.

Step 5: Determination of the Sample Size

y This refers to the number of items to be selected from

the universe to constitute a sample. y The size of the sample should neither be too large nor too small. y It should be optimum. An optimum sample is one which fulfills the requirements of efficiency, representativeness, reliability and flexibity.

Step 6: Parameters of interest

y While determining the sample design, the specific

population parameters (which are of interest) should be taken into consideration y We may be interested in estimating the proportion of persons with some characteristics in the population. y There may be important sub groups in the population about whom we would like to make estimates.

Step 7: Specify the Sampling Plan

y The sampling plan involves the specification of how each of the

decisions made thus far is to be implemented. y It may have been decided that the household will be the element and the block the sampling unit. - How is a household defined operationally? - How is the interviewer to be instructed to distinguish between families and households in instances where two families and some distant relatives of one of them are sharing the same apartment? - How is the interviewer to be instructed to take a systematic sample of households in the block? - What should the interviewer do when a housing unit selected is vacant? - What is the call back procedure for households at which no one is at home? - What age respondent speaking for the household is acceptable?

Step 8: Budgetary Considerations

y Cost considerations from practical point of view, have

a major impact about decisions relating to not only the size of the sample but also to the type of sample. This fact can even lead to the use of non-probability sampling.

Step 9: Select the Sample/Sampling Procedure

y The final step in the sampling process is the actual selection of the sample elements. This requires a substantial amount of office and fieldwork, particularly if personal interviews are involved. y The researcher must decide the type of sample he will use i.e., he must decide about the technique to be used in selecting the items for the sample. In fact, this technique or procedure stands for the sample design itself.

- There are several sample designs out of which the researcher must choose one for his study. -

Characteristics of a good Sampling design

y Sample design must result in a truly representative sample. y Sample design must be such which results in a smaller sampling error (Sampling error is the deviation of the selected sample from the true characteristics, traits, behaviors, qualities or figures of the entire population). y Sample design must be viable in the context of funds available for the research study. y Sample design should be such that the results of the sample study can be applied, in general, for the universe with a reasonable level of confidence.

Basic Sampling design

Representative basis

Element selection technique

Probability Sampling Simple random sampling

Non Probability sampling Haphazard sampling or convenient sampling

Unrestricted Sampling

Restricted sampling

Complex random sampling (Such as cluster sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling etc.)

Purposive sampling (Such as quota sampling, judgment sampling)

Different types of sample designs

y Probability y Non Probability

Probability Sampling
y Probability sampling is based on the concept of

random selection. y When elements in the population have a known chance of being chosen as subjects in the sample, we resort to a probability sampling design. Probability sampling can be either unrestricted (or simple random sampling) or restricted (or complex probability sampling) in nature.

Unrestricted or Simple Random Sampling

y In the unrestricted probability sampling design, more commonly known as simple random sampling, every element in the population has a known and equal chance of being selected as a subject.
Let us say there are 1,000 elements in the population, and we need a sample of 100. Suppose we were to drop pieces of paper in a hat, each bearing the name of one of the elements, and we were to draw 100 of those from the hat with our eyes closed. We know that each one of those elements has a 100/1,000 chance of being drawn. In other words, we know that the probability of any one of them being chosen as a subject is. 1, and we also know that each single element in the hat has the same or equal probability of being chosen.

Restricted or Complex Probability Sampling

As an alternative to the simple random sampling design, several complex probability sampling (restricted probability) designs can be used. These probability sampling procedures offer a viable and sometimes more efficient alternative to the unrestricted design. Efficiency is improved in that as more information can be obtained for a given sample size using some of the complex probability sampling procedures than the simple random sampling design.

Complex Random Sampling Designs

y Probability sampling under restricted sampling techniques, as stated above, may result in complex random sampling designs. Such designs may as well be called mixed sampling designs for many of such designs may represent a combination of Probability and non-probability sampling procedures in selecting a sample. Some of the popular complex sampling designs are as follows: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii.

Systematic sampling Stratified sampling Cluster sampling Area Sampling Multi-stage sampling Sampling with probability proportional to size Sequential Sampling.

Systematic Sampling
y The systematic sampling design involves drawing every nth element in the population starting with a randomly chosen element between 1 and n. The procedure is exemplified below. y If we want a sample of 35 households from a total population of 260 houses in a particular locality, then we could sample every seventh house starting from a random number from 1 to 7. Let us say that the random number is 7, then houses numbered 7, 14, 21, 28, and so on, would be sampled until the 35 houses are selected.

Stratified Random Sampling

y Stratified random sampling, as its name implies, involves a process of stratification, followed by random selection of subjects from each stratum. y The population is first divided into mutually exclusive groups that are relevant, appropriate, and meaningful in the context of the study. For instance, if the president of a company is concerned about low motivational levels or high absentee rates among the employees, it makes sense to stratify the population of organizational members according to their job levels. y When the data are collected and the analysis done, we may find that contrary to expectations, it is the middle-level managers who are not motivated. This information will help the president to focus on action at the right level and devise better ways to motivate this group.

Cluster Sampling
y Single-stage cluster sampling, which involves the division of the

population into convenient clusters, randomly choosing the required number of clusters as sample subjects, and investigating all the elements in each of the randomly chosen clusters. which a sample could be taken is to divide the area into a number of smaller non-overlapping areas and then to randomly select a number of these smaller areas (usually called clusters), with the ultimate sample consisting of all (or sample of) units in these small areas or clusters. among the members within each group are chosen for study in cluster sampling.

y If the total area of interest happens to be a big one , a convenient way in

y Groups or chunks of elements that, ideally, would have heterogeneity

y This is in contrast to choosing some elements from the population as in

simple random sampling, or stratifying and then choosing members from the strata as in stratified random sampling, or choosing every nth element in the population as in systematic sampling.

Area Sampling
y The area sampling design constitutes geographic

clusters; that is, when the research pertains to populations within identifiable geographic areas such as countries, city blocks, or particular boundaries within a locality, area sampling can be done.

Thus, area sampling is a form of cluster sampling within an area. Sampling the needs of consumers before opening a 24-hour convenience store in a particular part of the town would involve area sampling. Retail store location plans, advertisements focused specifically on local populations, and TV and radio programs beamed at specific areas could all use an area sampling design gather information on the interests, attitudes, predisposition s, and behaviors of the local area people.

Multistage Cluster Sampling

y Cluster sampling can also be done in several stages, and is then

called multistage cluster sampling. If we were to do a national survey of the average monthly bank deposits, for instance, cluster sampling would first be used to select the urban, semi urban, and rural geographical locations. At the second stage, banks within each area would be chosen.

In other words, multistage cluster sampling involves :

- A probability sampling of the primary sampling units, from each of these primary units, - A probability sample of the secondary sampling units is then drawn; - A third level of probability sampling is done from each of these secondary units, and so on, until we have reached the final stage of break down for the sample units, when we will sample every member in those units.

Proportionate and Disproportionate Stratified Random Sampling

y Once the population has been stratified in some meaningful way, a

sample of members from each stratum can be drawn using either a simple random sampling or a systematic sampling procedure. y The subjects drawn from each stratum can be either proportionate or disproportionate to the number of elements in the stratum. For instance, if an organization employs 10 top managers, 30 middle managers, 50 lower-level managers, 100 supervisors, 500 clerks, and 20 secretaries and a stratified sample of about 140 people is needed for some scientific survey the researcher might decide to include in the sample 20 percent of members from each stratum. That is, members represented in the sample from each stratum will be proportionate to the total number of elements in the respective stratum. This would mean that 2 from the top, 6 from the middle, and 10 from the lower levels of management will be included in the sample. In addition, 20 supervisors, 100 clerks, and 4 secretaries will be represented in the sample.

Double Sampling/ Multiple/ Sequential

y When a particular lot is to be accepted or rejected on the basis of a single sample, it is known as simple sampling. y When further information is needed from a subset of the group from which some information has already been collected. A sampling where a sample is used in a study to collect some preliminary information of interest, later a sub sample of this primary sample is used to examine the matter more detail, is called double sampling. y When the decision rests on the basis of more than two samples but the number of samples is certain and decided in advance, the sampling is known as multiple sampling. y But when the number of samples is more than two but it is neither certain nor decided in advance, this type of system is often referred to as sequential sampling.

Non Probability Sampling

y Also known as deliberate, purposive, judgement sampling. y In this type of sampling, items for the sample are selected deliberately by the researcher. y Purposive sample or the small mass that is selected from a huge one will be typical or representative of the whole.

For instance if economic conditions of the people living in a state are to be studied, a few towns or villages may be purposively selected for intensive study on the principle that they can be representative of the entire state. Quota sampling is an example of non probability sampling.

Convenience Sampling
As its name implies, convenience sampling involves collecting information from members of the population who are conveniently available to provide it.
One would expect that the Pepsi Challenge contest was administered on a convenience sampling basis. Such a contest, with the purpose of determining whether people prefer one product to another, might be held at a mall visited by many shoppers. Those inclined to take the test might form the sample for the study of how many people prefer Pepsi over Coke or product X over product Y. Such a sample is a convenience sample.

Purposive Sampling
y Instead of obtaining information from those who are

most conveniently available, it might sometimes become necessary to obtain information from specific target groups. Here, the sampling is confined to specific types of people who can provide the desired information, either because they are the only ones who possess it, or conform to some criteria set by the researcher. This type of sampling judgment sampling and quota sampling will now be explained.

Judgment Sampling
y Judgment sampling involves the choice of subjects

who are in the best position to provide the information required.

For instance, if a researcher wants to find out what it takes for women managers to make it to the top, the only people who can give firsthand information are the women who have risen to the positions of presidents, vice presidents, and important top-level executives in work organizations. By virtue of having gone through the experiences and processes themselves, they might be expected to have expert knowledge and might perhaps be able to provide good data or information to the researcher. Thus, the judgment sampling design is used when a limited number or category of people have the information that is sought. In such cases, any type of probability sampling across a cross-section of the entire population is purposeless and useless.

Quota Sampling
y Quota sampling, a second type of purposive sampling,

ensures that certain groups are adequately represented in the study through the assignment of a quota. Generally, the quota fixed for each subgroup is based on the total numbers of each group in the population. However, since this is a non-probability-sampling plan, the results are not generalizable to the population.