Elementary Mathematics

for
Prosthetics & Orthotics

Academic year 2019-2020

Learning objectives
The student will have a knowledge of the following areas of elementary
mathematics and their application.
- simple algebraic manipulation;
- solution of simple equations;
- geometry;
- trigonometric functions;
- solution of simple trigonometric equations;
1. Algebraic manipulation

Content
• Using index laws
• Multiplying out brackets
• Factorization
• Factorizing quadratic expressions
• Algebraic fractions
1. Using index laws
Multiplying terms
Simplify: x + x + x + x + x= 5x
x to the power of 5
Simplify:
x × x × x × x × x = x5
x5 has been written using index notation.
The number n is called
xn the index or power.

The number x is called the base.

Multiplying terms involving indices
We can use index notation to simplify expressions.

For example,

3p × 2p = 3 × p × 2 × p = 6p2

q2 × q3 = q×q×q×q×q= q5

3r × r2 = 3 × r × r × r = 3r3

3t × 3t = (3t)2 or 9t2
Multiplying terms with the same base

When we multiply two terms with the same base the indices
are added.

For example,
a4 × a2 = (a × a × a × a) × (a × a)
=a×a×a×a×a×a
= a6 = a (4 + 2)
In general,
xm × xn = x(m + n)
Dividing terms

Remember, in algebra we do not usually use the division sign, ÷.

Instead, we write the number or term we are dividing by

underneath like a fraction.

For example,

(a + b) ÷ c is written as a+b
c
Dividing terms
Like a fraction, we can often simplify expressions by
cancelling.
For example,
6p 2
n3 6p2 ÷ 3p =
n ÷n = 2
3 2
3p
n
2
6×p×p
n×n×n =
= 3×p
n×n
= 2p
=n
Dividing terms with the same base
When we divide two terms with the same base the indices are subtracted.

For example,
a×a×a×a×a
a ÷a =
5 2
= a × a × a = a3 = a (5 – 2)
a×a
2
4×p×p×p×p×p×p
4p ÷ 2p =
6 4
= 2 × p × p = 2p2 = 2p(6 – 4)
2×p×p×p×p
In general,

xm ÷ xn = x(m – n)
Expressions of the form (xm)n
Sometimes terms can be raised to a power and the result raised
to another power.
For example,

(y ) = y × y
3 2 3 3 (pq2)4 = pq2 × pq2 × pq2 × pq2

= (y × y × y) × (y × y × y) = p4 × q (2 + 2 + 2 + 2)

=y 6 = p4 × q8

= p4q8
Expressions of the form (xm)n
When a term is raised to a power and the result raised to another power, the powers
are multiplied.

For example,
(a5)3 = a5 × a5 × a5
= a(5 + 5 + 5)
= a15 = a(3 × 5)

In general, (xm)n = xmn

Expressions of the form (xm)n

Rewrite the following without brackets.

1) (2a2)3 = 8a6 2) (m3n)4 = m12n4

3) (t–4)2 = t–8 4) (3g5)3 = 27g15

5) (ab–2)–2 = a–2b4 6) (p2q–5)–1 = p–2q5

7) (h½)2 = h 8) (7a4b–3)0 = 1
The zero index
Any number or term divided by
Look at the following division: itself is equal to 1.

y4 ÷ y 4 = 1

But using the rule that xm ÷ xn = x(m – n)

y4 ÷ y4 = y(4 – 4) = y0

That means that y0 = 1

In general, for all x  0, x0 = 1

Negative indices

Look at the following division:

b×b 1 1
b ÷b =
2 4
= = 2
b×b×b×b b×b b
But using the rule that xm ÷ xn = x(m – n)
b2 ÷ b4 = b(2 – 4) = b–2

That means that 1

b = 2–2
b

In general, 1
x = n
–n
x
Negative indices

Write the following using fraction notation:

1 This is the reciprocal of u.

u =
–1
u

2
2b = 4
–4
b

x 2
x2y–3 = 3
y

2a
2a(3 – b) =
–2
(3 – b)2
Negative indices

Write the following using negative indices:

2
= 2a–1
a

x3
= x3y–4
y 4

p2
= p2(q + 2)–1
q+2

3m
= 3m(n2 + 2)–3
(n2 + 2)3
Fractional indices
Indices can also be fractional.
=

But, . =x

So, =.
The square root of x.

1 1 1
( + + )
Similarly, ( 𝑥 )1 /3 . ( 𝑥 )1 /3 . ( 𝑥 ) 1 /3 = 𝑥 3 3 3 1
¿ 𝑥 =𝑥

But, . . =x

The cube root of x.

So, = .
Index laws
Here is a summary of the index laws.

xm × xn = x(m + n) x–1 = 1
x
xm ÷ xn = x(m – n) x–n = 1n
x
(xm)n = xmn 1
x = x
2

x1 = x 1
x = x
n
n

x = 1 (for x = 0)
0 m
x = xm
n
n
Exercises
1. Simplify the following and leave your answers in index form:
(a) 63 ×67
(b) 45 ×42
(c) x7 × x9
(d) m4 ×m3
(e) (m4)3
(f) (82)3
(g) 53 × 59
(h) x6 × x12 × x3
(i) (x3)4 × x5
(j) m4 × (m5)2 × m
Exercises-2
2. Simplify the following and leave your answers in index form:
(a) 6−4 ×67
(b) 108 ×10−5
(c) x7 × x3
(d) (x−2)3
(e) y−12 × y5
(f) y8 ÷y3
(g) 72 ÷7−4
(h) (m4)−2 ×(m3)5
(i) y6 × y14 ÷ y5
(j) (83)4 ÷(82)3
Exercises-3
3. Simplify the following:
(a) 91/2
(b) 27 1/3
(c) 16 1/2
(d) 16−1/2
(e) 27−2/3
Exercises-4
4. Rewrite the following in index form:

a) 8
b) 3 m
c) (m 6 )1/ 2
 
d ) 10 1/ 2 3

e) 16 
1/ 2 2
2 Multiplying out brackets
Expanding expressions with brackets
Look at this algebraic expression:

3y(4 – 2y)

This means 3y × (4 – 2y), but we do not usually write × in algebra.

To expand or multiply out this expression we multiply every term

inside the bracket by the term outside the bracket.

3y(4 – 2y) = 12y – 6y2

Expanding expressions with brackets
Look at this algebraic expression:

–a(2a2 – 2a + 3)

When there is a negative term outside the bracket, the signs of the
multiplied terms change.

–a(2a2 – 3a + 1) = –2a3 + 3a2 – a

In general, –x(y + z) = –xy – xz

–x(y – z) = –xy + xz
–(y + z) = –y – z
–(y – z) = –y + z
Expanding brackets and simplifying
Sometimes we need to multiply out brackets and then simplify.

For example, 3x + 2x(5 – x)

We need to multiply the bracket by 2x and collect together like

terms.

3x + 2x(5 – x) = 3x + 10x – 2x2

= 13x – 2x2
Expanding brackets and simplifying

Expand and simplify: 4 – (5n – 3)

We need to multiply the bracket by –1 and collect together like

terms.

4 – (5n – 3) = 4 – 5n + 3
= 4 + 3 – 5n

= 7 – 5n
Expanding brackets and simplifying

Expand and simplify: 2(3n – 4) + 3(3n + 5)

We need to multiply out both brackets and collect together like

terms.

2(3n – 4) + 3(3n + 5) = 6n – 8 + 9n + 15
= 6n + 9n – 8 + 15
= 15n + 7
Expanding brackets then simplifying

Expand and simplify: 5(3a + 2b) – a(2 + 5b)

We need to multiply out both brackets and collect together like

terms.

5(3a + 2b) – a(2 + 5b) = 15a + 10b – 2a – 5ab

= 15a – 2a + 10b – 5ab

= 13a + 10b – 5ab

Find the area of the rectangle
What is the area of a rectangle of length
(a + b) and width (c + d)?
a b

c ac bc

d ad bd

In general, (a + b)(c + d) = ac + ad + bc + bd
Expanding two brackets
Look at this algebraic expression:
(3 + t)(4 – 2t)

This means (3 + t) × (4 – 2t), but we do not usually write × in algebra.

To expand or multiply out this expression we multiply every term in

the second bracket by every term in the first bracket.

(3 + t)(4 – 2t) = 3(4 – 2t) + t(4 – 2t)

= 12 – 6t + 4t – 2t2 This is a
quadratic
= 12 – 2t – 2t2 expression.
Expanding two brackets
With practice we can expand the product of two linear expressions
in fewer steps. For example,

(x – 5)(x + 2) = x2 + 2x – 5x – 10

= x2 – 3x – 10

Notice that – … and that

3 is the sum –10 is the
of –5 and 2 product of
… –5 and 2.
Squaring expressions

Expand and simplify: (2 – 3a)2

We can write this as, (2 – 3a)2 = (2 – 3a)(2 – 3a)

Expanding, (2 – 3a)(2 – 3a) = 2(2 – 3a) – 3a(2 – 3a)

= 4 – 6a – 6a + 9a2
= 4 – 12a + 9a2
Squaring expressions

In general, (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2

The first … plus 2 × … plus the

term the product second term
squared … of the two squared.
terms …

For example, (3m + 2n)2 = 9m2 + 12mn + 4n2

The difference between two squares
Expand and simplify (2a + 7)(2a – 7)

Expanding,
(2a + 7)(2a – 7) = 2a(2a – 7) + 7(2a – 7)
= 4a2 – 14a + 14a – 49
= 4a2 – 49
When we simplify, the two middle terms cancel out.
In general, This is the difference
between two squares.
(a + b)(a – b) = a2 – b2
 Exercises

Simplify 3  y  2   5 3 y  2 x   2  6 y  3 

x( y  2 z )  x(3 y  4 z )
Expand and simplify the following

(a) ( x  3)( 2 x  5)
2
(b) ( x  2 xy )( x  2 y )
2
(c) (2 x  3)
(d) 2 x  4 y  33x  2 y  5
Exercise 1
Expand and simplify where possible
2. x2a  xy 
2

1. 3 x  2 y  4. ( x  7)( x  4)
3. x  5x  3
6. 2 x  13x  2 
5. x  32
7. 2 x  52  3x  8. 3x  4 3x  4 

9. 3x  12  x  42 10. 3( x  2 y ) 2

11 . 3x  2 y 2 12. x  13

13. 3x  2 y 2  2 y  3x 2 14. x  y  z 2  x  y  z 2
15. 3x  7 2  7x  32 16. 32 x  12  23x  12
17. x  12 x  2 18. x  14
3 Factorization
Factorizing expressions
Factorizing an expression is the opposite of expanding it.

Expanding or multiplying out

a(b + c) ab + ac

Factorizing
Often:
When we expand an expression we remove the brackets.
When we factorize an expression we write it with brackets.
Factorizing expressions
Expressions can be factorized by dividing each term by a common
factor and writing this outside of a pair of brackets.
For example, in the expression
5x + 10
the terms 5x and 10 have a common factor, 5.
We can write the 5 outside of a set of brackets and mentally divide
5x + 10 by 5.
(5x + 10) ÷ 5 = x + 2
This is written inside the bracket.
5(x + 2)
Factorizing expressions
Writing 5x + 10 as 5(x + 2) is called factorizing the expression.

Factorize 6a + 8 Factorize 12n – 9n2

The highest common factor The highest common factor

of 6a and 8 is 2. of 12n and 9n2 is 3n.

(6a + 8) ÷ 2 = 3a + 4 (12n – 9n2) ÷ 3n = 4 – 3n

6a + 8 = 2(3a + 4) 12n – 9n2 = 3n(4 – 3n)

 Factorizing expressions
Writing 5x + 10 as 5(x + 2) is called factorizing the expression.

Factorize 3x + x2 Factorize 2p + 6p2 – 4p3

The highest common factor The highest common factor of

of 3x and x2 is x. 2p, 6p2 and 4p3 is 2p.

(3x + x ) ÷ x = 3 + x
2 (2p + 6p2 – 4p3) ÷ 2p = 1 + 3p – 2p2

2p + 6p2 – 4p3 = 2p(1 + 3p – 2p2)

3x + x2 = x(3 + x)
Factorization by pairing
Some expressions containing four terms can be factorized by
regrouping the terms into pairs that share a common factor.

For example, Factorize 4a + ab + 4 + b

Two terms share a common factor of 4 and the remaining two
terms share a common factor of b.
4a + ab + 4 + b = 4a + 4 + ab + b
= 4(a + 1) + b(a + 1)
4(a + 1) and + b(a + 1) share a common factor of (a + 1) so we can
write this as (a + 1)(4 + b)
Factorization by pairing
Factorize xy – 6 + 2y – 3x
We can regroup the terms in this expression into two pairs of terms
that share a common factor.
When we take out a
xy – 6 + 2y – 3x = xy + 2y – 3x – 6 factor of –3, – 6
becomes + 2
= y(x + 2) – 3(x + 2)

y(x + 2) and – 3(x + 2) share a common factor of (x + 2) so we can

write this as

(x + 2)(y – 3)
4 Factorizing quadratic
expressions
Quadratic expressions
A quadratic expression is an expression in which the highest
power of the variable is 2. For example,
t 2
x2 – 2, w2 + 3w + 1, 4 – 5g2 ,
2
The general form of a quadratic expression in x is:

ax2 + bx + c (where a = 0)

x is a variable.
a is a fixed number and is the coefficient of x2.
b is a fixed number and is the coefficient of x.
c is a fixed number and is a constant term.
Factorizing
expressions
Remember: factorizing an expression is the opposite of expanding it.

Expanding or multiplying out

(a + 1)(a + 2) a2 + 3a + 2

Factorizing
Often:
When we expand an expression we remove the brackets.
When we factorize an expression we write it with brackets.
Factorizing quadratic expressions
Quadratic expressions of the form x2 + bx + c can be factorized if
they can be written using brackets as
(x + d)(x + e)
where d and e are integers.
If we expand (x + d)(x + e) we have,
(x + d)(x + e) = x2 + dx + ex + de
= x2 + (d + e)x + de
Comparing this to x2 + bx + c we can see that:
The sum of d and e must be equal to b, the coefficient of x.
The product of d and e must be equal to c, the constant term.
Factorizing quadratic expressions
Quadratic expressions of the form ax2 + bx + c can be factorized if
they can be written using brackets as
(dx + e)(fx + g)
where d, e, f and g are integers.
If we expand (dx + e)(fx + g)we have,
(dx + e)(fx + g)= dfx2 + dgx + efx + eg
= dfx2 + (dg + ef)x + eg
Comparing this to ax2 + bx + c we can see that we must choose d, e, f
and g such that: a = df,
b = (dg + ef)
c = eg
Factorizing the difference between two squares
A quadratic expression in the form x 2 – a2

is called the difference between two squares.

The difference between two squares can be factorized as follows:
x2 – a2 = (x + a)(x – a)

For example, 9x2 – 16 = (3x + 4)(3x – 4)

25a2 – 1 = (5a + 1)(5a – 1)
m4 – 49n2 = (m2 + 7n)(m2 – 7n)
Exercises

Factor the following completely (if possible):

1. 5x2 + 15

2. x2  49

3. p2 – 5p + 6

3. 2x2  18
 Exercise 2 - Factorise fully (where possible)

1. 2a  4b 2. 3a  4ab
4. 3ab  4ac  5ad
5. ut  5t 2
7. 36d 3  12d 2 4
8. a bc  a b c3 2
4 3 3 4 2
10. 5a b  10a c  b c 2 3 3
11 . 6ab  9a b  3b c 5 2
Exercise 2 - Factor the following.

1) x2 – 2x – 48 2) 4y2 – 4y – 3 3) 16y2 – 225

 
4) 4z2 – 12z + 9 5) 36w2 + 60w + 25 6) 14x2 + 2x – 12
 
7) 3v2 – 18v 8) 12x2 + 3x + 3 9) 4u2 – 36
 
10) 6x2 – 7x – 5 11) 64x2 – 9 12) 30u2 – 57u + 21
 
13) 9t2 – 12t + 4 14) x2 – 3x – 4 15) x2 + 8x + 15
Exercise 3: Factorize the followings

1. 3x2 – 7x – 6
2. 16x2 – 12x – 10
3. 36x4 – 229x2 + 25
4. 6x2 – 3xy + 11x – 4y + 4
5. 10a2 + 3b2 + 17ab – 22a – 7b + 4
6. 4x2 + 2xy – 2y2 + 13xz – 5yz + 3z2
7. 3x2 – 2xy – 20xz + 14yz – 7z2
5 Algebraic fractions
Algebraic fractions
3x and 2a are examples of algebraic fractions.
4x2 3a + 2
The rules that apply to numerical fractions also apply to
algebraic fractions.
For example, if we multiply or divide the numerator and
the denominator of a fraction by the same number or
term we produce an equivalent fraction.
For example,
3x 3 6 3y 3(a + 2)
2 = = = =
4x 4x 8x 4xy 4x(a + 2)
Simplifying algebraic fractions
We simplify or cancel algebraic fractions in the same way
as numerical fractions, by dividing the numerator and the
denominator by common factors. For example,
6ab
Simplify
3ab2
2
6ab 6×a×b
2 =
3ab 3×a×b×b
2
=
b
Simplifying algebraic fractions
Sometimes we need to factorize the numerator and the
denominator before we can simplify an algebraic fraction.
For example,
2a + a2
Simplify
8 + 4a

2a + a2 a (2 + a)
=
8 + 4a 4(2 + a)
a
=
4
Simplifying algebraic fractions
b2 – 36 is the
difference b2 – 36
Simplify
between two 3b – 18
squares.

b2 – 36 (b + 6)(b – 6)
=
3b – 18 3(b – 6)
b+6
=
3
If required, we can write this as
b 6 b
+ = + 2
3 3 3
Manipulating algebraic fractions
Remember, a fraction written in the form
a+b a b
can be written as +
c c c
However, a fraction written in the form
c c c
cannot be written as +
a+b a b
For example,
1+2 1 2 3 3 3
= + but = +
3 3 3 1+2 1 2
Multiplying and dividing algebraic fractions
We can multiply and divide algebraic fractions using the
same rules that we use for numerical fractions.

In general, a c ac
× =
b d bd

and, a c a d ad
÷ = × =
b d b c bc

For example, 3
3p 2 6p 3p
× = =
4 (1 – p) 4(1 – p) 2(1 – p)
2
Multiplying and dividing algebraic
fractions
2 4
What is ÷ ? This is the
3y – 6 y–2 reciprocal
4
of y – 2
2 4 2 y–2
÷ = ×
3y – 6 y–2 3y – 6 4
2 y–2
= ×
3(y – 2) 4
2
1
=
6
Adding algebraic fractions
We can add algebraic fractions using the same method that we use
for numerical fractions. For example,

1 2
What is + ?
a b

We need to write the fractions over a common denominator before

we can add them.
1 2 b 2a b + 2a
+ = + =
a b ab ab ab
In general,
a c ad + bc
+ =
b d bd
Adding algebraic fractions

3 y
What is + ?
x 2

We need to write the fractions over a common

denominator before we can add them.
3 y 3×2 y×x
+ = +
x 2 x×2 2×x
6 xy
= +
2x 2x
6 + xy
=
2x
Subtracting algebraic fractions

We can also subtract algebraic fractions using the same

method as we use for numerical fractions. For example,

We need to write the fractions over a common

denominator before we can subtract them.
p q 2p 3q 2p – 3q
– = – =
3 2 6 6 6

In general, a c ad – bc
– =
b d bd
Subtracting algebraic fractions
What is 2+p – 3 ?
4 2q
2+p 3 (2 + p) × 2q 3×4
– = –
4 2q 4 × 2q 2q × 4
2q(2 + p) 12
= –
8q 8q
2q(2 + p) – 126
=
8q
4
q(2 + p) – 6
=
4q
Exercises
Exercises 2
Exercises 3
Simplify the following expressions by removing the brackets. Order the terms in your answers so that
variable terms come before the constants .
Exercises 4
Simplify the following expressions by removing the brackets. Order the terms in your answers so that
variable terms come before the constants .
Exercises 5
Simplify the following expressions by removing the brackets. Order the terms in your answers so that
variable terms come before the constants .
Exercises 6
Simplify the following expressions by removing the brackets. Order the terms in your answers so that
variable terms come before the constants .
Exercises 7

Write each fraction in simplest form.