Data Base Management

System(DBMS)
UNIT 1_CHAPTER 2

Dr. P.N.Jayanthi
Asst. Prof.
Dept. of ECE

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SYLLABUS

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 Data Models
• Data Model: A set of concepts to describe the
structure of a database, and certain constraints that
the database should obey.(Eg: Blue print, Civil engr.)
• Data Model Operations: Operations for specifying
database retrievals and updates by referring to the
concepts of the data model. Operations on the data
model may include basic operations and user-defined
operations.

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Categories of data models in DBMS
• Conceptual (high-level, semantic) data models:
Provide concepts(entity,attribute,relationship) that are
close to the way many users perceive data. (Also
called entity-based or object-based data models.)
• Implementation (representational) data models:,
Balancing user views with some computer storage
details. Eg: SQL query
• Physical (low-level, internal) data models: Provide
concepts that describe details of how data is stored in
the computer.

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 History of Data Models
• Relational Model: proposed in 1970 by E.F. Codd (IBM),
first commercial system in 1981-82. Now in several
commercial products (DB2, ORACLE, SQL Server, SYBASE,
INFORMIX).
• Network Model: the first one to be implemented by
Honeywell in 1964-65 (IDS System). Adopted heavily due
to the support by CODASYL (CODASYL - DBTG report of
1971). Later implemented in a large variety of systems -
IDMS (Cullinet - now CA), DMS 1100 (Unisys), IMAGE
(H.P.), VAX -DBMS (Digital Equipment Corp.).
• Hierarchical Data Model: Iimplemented in a joint effort by
IBM and North American Rockwell around 1965. Resulted
in the IMS family of systems. The most popular model.
Other system based on this model: System 2k (SAS inc.)

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 History of Data Models
• Object-oriented Data Model(s): several models have been
proposed for implementing in a database system. One set
comprises models of persistent O-O Programming Languages
such as C++ (e.g., in OBJECTSTORE or VERSANT), and Smalltalk
(e.g., in GEMSTONE). Additionally, systems like O2, ORION (at
MCC - then ITASCA), IRIS (at H.P.- used in Open OODB).
• Object-Relational Models: Most Recent Trend. Started with
Informix Universal Server. Exemplified in the latest versions of
Oracle-10i, DB2, and SQL Server etc. systems.

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 Hierarchical Model

• ADVANTAGES:
• Hierarchical Model is simple to construct and operate .
• Corresponds to a number of natural hierarchically organized
domains - e.g., assemblies in manufacturing, personnel
organization in companies
• Language is simple; uses constructs like GET, GET UNIQUE,
GET NEXT, GET NEXT WITHIN PARENT etc.
• DISADVANTAGES:
• Navigational and procedural nature of processing
• Database is visualized as a linear arrangement of records
• Little scope for "query optimization"

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 Network Model
• ADVANTAGES:
• Network Model is able to model complex relationships and
represents semantics of add/delete on the relationships.
• Can handle most situations for modeling using record types
and relationship types.
• Language is navigational; uses constructs like FIND, FIND
member, FIND owner, FIND NEXT within set, GET etc.
Programmers can do optimal navigation through the database.
• DISADVANTAGES:
• Navigational and procedural nature of processing
• Database contains a complex array of pointers that thread
through a set of records.
Little scope for automated "query optimization”

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 Schemas versus Instances
• Database Schema: The description of a database.
• Includes descriptions of the database structure and the constraints
that should hold on the database. Not expected to change
frequently.
• Schema Diagram: A diagrammatic display of
schemas(some aspects of) is called a schema
diagram.
• Schema Construct: A component of the schema
or an object within the schema diagram , e.g.,
STUDENT, COURSE.
• Database Instance: The actual data stored in a
database at a particular moment in time. Also
called database state (or occurrence).

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PNJ_ECE Slide 2-10
Schema diagram

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 Database States
• Database State: Refers to the content of a database
at that moment of time.
• Initial Database State: Refers to the database when
it is loaded
• Valid State: A state that satisfies the structure and
constraints of the database.

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 Database States
• Distinction
• The database schema changes very infrequently. The
database state changes every time the database is
updated.
• Schema is also called intension, whereas database state is
called extension.
• Meta data DBMS stores the description of the schema and
constraints.

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 Three-Schema Architecture
• Proposed to support DBMS characteristics
of:
• Catalog to store schema to make it self
describing .
• Program-data independence insulation of
program and data
• Support of multiple views of the data.

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 Three-Schema Architecture
• Defines DBMS schemas at three levels:
• External schemas at the external level to describe the
various user views. Usually uses representational data
model.
• Conceptual schema at the conceptual level to describe the
structure and constraints for the whole database for a
community of users. Uses a conceptual or an high level
data model.
• Internal schema at the internal level to describe physical
storage structures and access paths. Typically uses a
physical data model.

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Three Schema architecture.

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 Three-Schema Architecture

Mappings :Among schema levels are needed

to transform requests and data. Programs
refer to an external schema, and are
mapped by the DBMS to the internal
schema for execution.

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 Data Independence
When a schema at a lower level is changed, only
the mappings between this schema and
higher-level schemas need to be changed in a
DBMS that fully supports data independence.
The higher-level schemas themselves are
unchanged. Hence, the application programs
need not be changed since they refer to the
external schemas.

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 Data Independence
Capacity to change schema at one level of data base system
with out having to change the schema at next higher level
•Logical Data Independence: The capacity to
change the conceptual schema without
having to change the external schemas and
their application programs.
•Physical Data Independence: The capacity
to change the internal schema without having
to change the conceptual schema. Hence the
external schema need not be.

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 DBMS Languages
• Data Definition Language (DDL): Used by the DBA
and database designers to specify the conceptual
schema of a database. In many DBMSs, the DDL is
also used to define internal and external schemas
(views). In some DBMSs, separate storage definition
language (SDL) and view definition language (VDL)
are used to define internal and external schemas.

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 DBMS Languages
• Data Manipulation Language (DML): Used to
specify database retrievals and updates.
• DML commands (data sublanguage) can be
embedded in a general-purpose programming
language (host language), such as COBOL, C or an
Assembly Language.
• Alternatively, stand-alone DML commands can be
applied directly (query language).

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 DBMS Languages
Two DMLs:
• High Level or Non-procedural Languages:
e.g., SQL, are set-oriented and specify which
data to retrieve than how to retrieve. Also
called declarative languages.
• Low Level or Procedural Languages
(record_at_a time):
Retrieves individual records or objects from the
database and processes each separately. It
needs a programming language, such as
looping. PNJ_ECE Slide 2-22
 DBMS Languages

• Users use high level language to specify

their requests
• Where as programmers use DML in its
embedded form to interact with databases.
• Naïve and parametric users usually use user
interfaces for interacting with the
database.

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 DBMS Interfaces
• User-friendly interfaces:
• Menu-based, popular for browsing on the web
• Forms-based, designed for naïve users
• Graphics-based (Point and Click, Drag and Drop etc.)
• Natural language: requests in written English
• Biometric
• Combinations of the above

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 Other DBMS Interfaces
• Speech as Input (?) and Output
• Web Browser as an interface
• Parametric interfaces (e.g., bank tellers) using
function keys.
• Interfaces for the DBA:
• Creating accounts, granting authorizations
• Setting system parameters
• Changing schemas or access path

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Components modules of DBMS

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 Components modules of DBMS
• The figure is divided into two parts.
• The top part of the figure refers to the various users of the database
environment and their interfaces.
• The lower part shows the internals of the DBMS responsible for storage of
data and processing of transactions.
• The database and the DBMS catalog are usually stored on disk.
• Access to the disk is controlled primarily by the operating
system (OS), which schedules disk read/write.
• Many DBMSs have their own buffer management module to
schedule disk read/write, because this has a considerable
effect on performance. Reducing disk read/write improves
performance considerably.

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 Lower part
• The runtime database processor executes (1)
the privileged commands, (2) the executable
query plans, and (3) the canned transactions
with runtime parameters

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 Database System Utilities
• Common utilities such as:
• Loading data stored in files into a database. Includes data
conversion tools.
• Backing up the database periodically on tape.
• Reorganizing database file structures.
• Performance monitoring utilities.
• Other functions, such as sorting, user monitoring, data
compression, etc.

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 Other Tools
• Data dictionary / repository:
• Used to store schema descriptions and other information such
as design decisions, application program descriptions, user
information, usage standards, etc.
• Active data dictionary is accessed by DBMS software and
users/DBA.
• Passive data dictionary is accessed by users/DBA only.
• Application Development Environments and CASE
(computer-aided software engineering) tools:
• These provide an environment for database
applications and database GUIs-querying,updating..

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 Classification of Databases
• Centralized Database
• Distributed Data base

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 Centralized and Client-Server
Architectures
• Centralized DBMS: combines everything into single system including-
DBMS software, hardware, application programs and user interface
processing software.

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Basic Client-Server Architectures
• Specialized Servers with Specialized functions
• Clients
• DBMS Server

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PNJ_ECE Slide 2-34
Basic Client-Server Physical two
tier Architecture

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 Specialized Servers with Specialized
functions:
• File Servers
• Printer Servers
• Web Servers
• E-mail Servers
Server is a system containing both hardware and
software that can provide services to the client
machines such as, file access, printing, database
access.
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 Clients:
• Provide appropriate interfaces and a client-version of
the system to access and utilize the server resources.
• Clients maybe diskless machines or PCs or
Workstations with disks with only the client software
installed.
• Connected to the servers via some form of a
network.
(LAN: local area network, wireless network, etc.)

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 DBMS Server
• Provides database query and transaction
services to the clients
• Sometimes called query and transaction
servers

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Two Tier Client-Server Architecture
• User Interface Programs and Application
Programs run on the client side
• Interface called ODBC (Open Database
Connectivity) provides an Application
program interface (API) allow client side
programs to call the DBMS. Most DBMS
vendors provide ODBC drivers.

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Two Tier Client-Server Architecture
• A client program may connect to several DBMSs.
• The system components were moved to the client
side with user interface and application programs
• Other variations of clients are possible: e.g., in some
DBMSs, more functionality is transferred to clients
including data dictionary functions, optimization and
recovery across multiple servers, etc. In such
situations the server may be called the Data Server.

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Three Tier Client-Server Architecture
• Common for Web applications
• Intermediate Layer called Application Server or Web
Server:
• Stores the web connectivity software and the rules and
business logic (constraints) part of the application used to
access the right amount of data from the database server
• Acts like a conduit for sending partially processed data
between the database server and the client.
• Additional Features- Security:
• Encrypt the data at the server before transmission
• Decrypt data at the client

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Three Tier Client-Server Architecture

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 Classification of DBMSs
• Based on the data model used:
• Traditional: Relational, Network, Hierarchical.
• Emerging: Object-oriented, Object-relational.
• Other classifications:
• Single-user (typically used with micro- computers)
vs. multi-user (most DBMSs).
• Centralized (uses a single computer with one
database) vs. distributed (uses multiple
computers, multiple databases)

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 Classification of DBMSs
Distributed Database Systems have now come
to be known as client server based database
systems because they do not support a totally
distributed environment, but rather a set of
database servers supporting a set of clients.

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 Variations of Distributed
Environments:
• Homogeneous DDBMS
Homogeneous systems are much easier to design and manage. This approach
provides incremental growth, making the addition of a new site to the
DDBMS easy, and allows increased performance by exploiting the parallel
processing capability of multiple sites.

• Heterogeneous DDBMS
Heterogeneous system usually result when individual sites have implemented
their own database and integration is considered at a later stage. In a
heterogeneous system,

• Federated or Multidatabase Systems

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 ER model
• Entity
• Relationships
• Attributes

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 Any questions?

[email protected]

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