2017 - Topic 1.

2: Systems and Models –

introduction page 18

Why are we studying systems in this course?

The environment we live in is made up of many parts,

which when put together make an integrated unit.

Some sciences study the parts of the system in great

detail, and spend little time on how they interact with
other parts, for example Biology.
We will study the parts together or Holistically, hence,
‘Environmental systems’.
When studied separately, we call this the Reductionist
approach. 1
 Our fragile skin on the planet Earth
Starter! What is our Earth system?

1.Put these words and symbols together to describe the earth

system.
Atmosphere, Biosphere, Lithosphere, Hydrosphere, Ecosphere, = ,
+, +, +.
2. Which one of these provides us with most of our natural
pollutants?
3. Which one of these transfers most of our heat around the planet?
4. Which of these is up to 1100km in depth?
5. Which of these contains about 47% oxygen?
6. Which of these contains the troposphere?

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 Our fragile skin on the planet Earth
What is our Earth system?
Ecosphere = Atmosphere + Lithosphere + Hydrosphere + Biosphere
2. Which one of these provides us with most of our natural
pollutants? The Lithosphere or the 1 – 100km crust
3. Which one of these transfers most of our heat around the planet?
The Hydrosphere. The ocean currents circulate most of the earths’
heat. The atmosphere also but to a smaller degree.
4. Which of these is up to 1100km in depth? The Atmosphere
5. Which of these contains about 47% oxygen? The Lithosphere or
the crust. 47% oxygen, 28% silicon,8% Aluminium, 5% Iron.
6. Which of these contains the troposphere? This is the lowest level
of the atmosphere, up to about 10km high. Most biological
reactions occur here. Heat and pollutant are also transferred in
this layer.
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Some definitions
•Ecosphere -the planetary ecosystem, including all
the earth's living organisms and their physical
environment.

•Lithosphere -the rigid outer layer of the earth,

about 75 km the earth's crust and the solid part 

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 So, what is a system?
‘An assemblage of parts and their relationship forming a
functioning entirety or whole’.
It can be living or non-living, or at any scale.

A system is more than the sum of all the parts. Eg. A computer is
more than the materials used to make it.
Systems can be defined as Open, Closed, or Isolated. (copy)
Most systems are Open.
Open
Open systems exchange energy and matter.
Closed systems exchange energy but not matter (Earth?)
Isolated systems – Neither energy nor matter are exchanged across
the boundary. The universe?
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 Distinguish between flows (inputs and outputs) and storages
(stock) in relation to systems
Flows – this is all matter and energy that moves
through or into or out of a defined system. In a
model they will be shown as arrows.
Storage - When energy or matter is held in the
system for any length of time.

The size of the boxes and the width of arrows can

also indicate the amount.
Look at, and discuss the models in fig 1.9 page 22.
Look at the ‘Biosphere II ‘ experiment. Page 23.
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 Topic 1.2 :Systems and Models
Outline the concepts and characteristics of a system.
Read pages 21-22
You must be aware that systems have;
Flows - Inputs, outputs.
Storages. (matter or energy)
Processes. (where there is a transfer or transform energy or matter)
Feedbacks. (which maintain stability and equilibrium)

Know the difference between holistic and reductionist approaches.

Define and give examples for;

Open system
Closed system
Isolated system

Be able to draw system models using boxes, arrows, and appropriate labels.

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 Apply the system concept to scales
Activity 1
• Read pages 20-21.
• Give an example of a small scale
system, medium scale and large scale
system.
• You need more than a name! show
next slide

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Bromeliads and tree frogs in a tropical rainforest.
This is an example of a small scale ecosystem
It includes
snails,
crabs,
fungi
and
bacteria.

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 Revision quiz – ‘Systems’ (from question bank)

1. Which of the following is the best definition of a system?

A. An assemblage of parts in which there are no changes over time
B. A set of biological components and their physical interactions
C. A set of components that function in an independent manner
D. An assemblage of parts, and their relationships, forming a whole
(Total 1 mark)
 

2. Inputs to a closed system may be

A. matter only.
B. energy only.
C. matter and energy.
D. heat only.
(Total 1 mark)
 

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3. Which of the following factors would prevent the ecosphere being classified
as a closed system?
A. The input of solar energy
B. The re-radiation to space of heat energy
C. The arrival of rocks as meteorites from space
D. The unstable state of its equilibrium
(Total 1 mark)
 

 
4. Which of the following does not represent an open system?
A. A lake inside a cave
B. The entire universe
C. A tropical island
D. A city
(Total 1 mark)

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5. What do outputs from an open system consist of?
A. Energy only
B. Matter only
C. Energy and matter
D. Neither energy nor matter
(Total 1 mark)

7. Which statement is correct?

A. A lake is an example of an isolated system.
B. An open system exchanges energy but not matter with its surroundings.
C. The most common systems found on Earth are closed systems.
D. A closed system exchanges energy but not matter with its surroundings.
(Total 1 mark)
 

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6. Which row shows how energy and materials move through each type of system?
Isolated System
Closed System
Open System
A.
energy flows through system
materials flow through system
energy flows through system
B.
energy does not enter system
materials flow through system
energy does not leave system
C.
energy does not leave system
energy flows through system
materials flow through system
D.
materials do not leave system
energy flows through system
materials do not leave system
(Total 1 mark)
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8. A desert with very low precipitation and little vegetation is an example of which
type of system?
A. Open
B. Closed
C. Isolated
D. Closed and isolated
(Total 1 mark)
 

9. Which system represents a herd of elephants living on the African grassland?

A. An open system
B. A closed system
C. An isolated system
D. An autotrophic system
(Total 1 mark)

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 Systems questions Answers

1. D
2. B
3. C
4. B
5. C
6. C
7. D
8. A
9. A

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 Describe transfer and transformation

Transfer- matter or energy moves through a

system without changing state or form.
• The idea of a flow or a change of location is
key to understanding transfer.

Transformation- A change in state or form. A

change of products, e.g. glucose to starch,
• or a change of form, e.g. water to ice in the
water cycle.

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 Models
‘A model is a simplified description designed
to show the structure or workings of an
object, system or concept’.
They illustrate flows, storages and linkages.
Which of these is an ESS model?

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 Evaluation of models
•What are the Advantages and Disadvantages of
using models? (Resource right margin page 25)

•Activity Q5 page 25
•List strengths and weaknesses of a climate change
model.(look at fig 1.1 on page 24 for inspiration).
•The Demographic Transition Model (DTM) also has
strengths and weaknesses. Read the bottom of
406 ,407 to see it’s disadvantages.

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 1.3 Describe how the first and second laws of thermodynamic are relevant to
environmental systems. Pages 26-28
Follow these ideas on the next 4 slides then answer exam Q’s
1. Energy exists in a variety of forms. For example heat, kinetic, elastic, chemical,
gravitational potential.
2. Energy can be changed from one form to another.
3. But it can never be destroyed.

• 1st law of thermodynamics – Energy can neither be created nor destroyed it

can only change forms.
• This is relevant to us because we can observe energy passing through, being
stored in and transforming within systems.
• Can you give an example of an energy transformation in a forest ecosystem?
• Can you give an example of energy loss from a desert cacti ecosystem?
• What type of energy is lost both in respiration and in the transferring of
matter from one tropic level to another?
• Note: respiration is the release of energy from glucose and other organic
molecules inside the cell. (it is not ‘breathing’)
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 The second law of thermodynamics – Energy goes from a
concentrated form to a dispersed form.

• Because the transfer and transformation of energy is not 100% reliable

there is less available energy left at the end of the process.
• Most of this energy is lost from the process as heat.

• To apply this to systems we can say that natural systems can never be
isolated as there must always be an input of energy to replace the energy
lost through inefficient transfers of energy within the system.

Key word
Entropy - When energy is lost from a system this brings about disorder.

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 1.3 Explain the nature of equilibria page 29
• Equilbria = Balance
• Open systems like a forest ecosystem tend to have a balance.
• There may be slight fluctuations, but they usually stay between
limits. Systems have controls in place to return them to
equilibrium after a disturbance. (negative feedback)
1. Steady state equilibrium – The ability to return to a balance
after a disturbance.
• Most open systems function this way. Inputs and outputs of
energy and matter to the system allow it to stay this way.
• Eg. When you exercise, your respiration increases, more heat is
produced. To help return to a balanced state you sweat. The
evaporation of the moisture helps return your temperature to
normal. (an example of negative feedback).

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 1.3 Explain the nature of equilibria continued.
2. Static Equilibrium – No inputs or outputs of energy or matter and no change
over time. Inanimate objects can be classified as being in static equilibrium.
This doesn’t occur in nature.
Stable and Unstable Equilibrium
Stable equilibrium – If a system returns to it’s original equilibrium after a
disturbance it is said to be stable.
• For example, a large canopy tree falls in a rainforest. A large area of open
sky is exposed to the lower layers. Over time the forest will regenerate and
stability will return.

Unstable equilibrium – Systems that do not return to the same equilibrium but
form a new equilibrium are described as unstable.
• For example, if a large area of rainforest is cleared it may not be able to
regenerate because of the loss of the thin fertile soil a new equilibrium may
be established of weeds, swamp or bare areas.
Read pages 26 -30. Answer questions 2 and 3 page 37.
On next page 22
 Topic 1.3 Equilibria questions from page 37 of the text.
2. What is the difference between a steady-state equilibrium and a static
equilibrium? Which type of equilibrium applies to ecological systems and why?
 
In steady-state equilibrium there are no changes over the longer
term, but there may be oscillations in the very short term.
Fluctuations in the system are around a fixed level and deviation
above or below results in a return towards this average state.
In static equilibrium, there are no inputs or outputs of matter or
energy and no change in the system over time.

In ecological systems the steady-state equilibrium applies as there

are inputs and outputs (an open system) and negative feedback
systems help the system to return after deviations around a fixed
level.
 
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 Topic 1.3 Equilibria questions from page 37 of the text.

3 a. When would a system not return to the original equilibrium, but

establish a new one? Give an example and explain why this is the
case.

When the deviation from the equilibrium is too large for the negative
feedback to correct the change.
In a tropical rainforest where deforestation is at a large scale. The
soil is exposed to wind, sun and intense rainfall. Once the thin top
fertile layer is removed the forest cannot regenerate. A new system
of scrub and weeds could be established.
The tipping point has been exceeded.

 
 
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 Topic 1.3 Equilibria questions from page 37 of the text.
3b. Give an example of a system that undergoes long-term change to
its equilibrium while retaining the integrity of the system.

This is a trick question. Through succession an area can change over

time transforming into a different ecosystem while retaining a
balance or equilibrium.
An example would be where a glacier is retreating on a
mountainside.
The initial primary sere may be mosses and lichen and as succession
takes place the ecosystem may change into an alpine grassland, then
onto a small shrub land with ferns and eventually into a coniferous
forest as the climax community.

 
 
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Feedback refers to the return of part of the output from a system
as input, so as to affect succeeding outputs. There are two type of
feedback.

Negative feedback tends to reduce, neutralize, or counteract any

deviation from an equilibrium, and promotes stability. This helps
maintain equilibrium in a system. Stable ecosystems have many
negative feedback loop.

Positive feedback amplifies or increases change; it leads to

exponential deviation away from an equilibrium. This is usually a
bad factor for the organism or environment.

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 Positive feedbacks and negative feedback.
Activity Read pages 30 – 31 Take notes on;
1.Negative feedback in an ecosystem and give an example.
2.Positive feedback in an ecosystem and give an example.

Negative feedback example

- Snowshoe hare and Lynx
– as numbers of each species rise
and fall they affect the numbers of
the other species.

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 Tipping point
Activity - Read Page 33 and answer

1.Define tipping point

2.Do positive or negative feedback loops create
tipping points? Explain.
3.Give an example.
Earth’’s climate as an
example of tipping point

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 Resilience and diversity
Activity - read Page 36-37 and answer

1.Define resilience
2.Explain how high diversity and large storages can
improve resilience.
3.Explain why an ecosystem such as natural tall
Prairie Grass is very resilient to change (fires).
(Think….. Storage…)
4.Explain why a tropical rainforest can be very
diverse but can lack resilience to recovery after a
disturbance such as logging. (Think soil ….)

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 1.4 Sustainability

Sustainability video 5 min if time

Natural capital explained – a bit boring but OK 5min

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 Sustainable Development worksheet 1
The resources pages 38 -42 and slide
Explain why/how humans often exceed sustainable
Define Sustainability limits.

Natural Capital

Natural Income
Give an example of the use of a natural resource to create
natural income. Try to apply sustainability In every link of the
chain.

Global Management vs Local Management

Why should some resources be managed globally?
Give some examples ( look at Mr. P’s slide)

Why is it sometimes better to have a local perspective

On resource management? Give examples (and slide)

List the ways humans can encourage sustainability of a

resource
1
2
3
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 Sustainable Development worksheet 2
The Brundtland Report 1987 –Our common future Justify the viewpoint Sustainable development
What did this report define as Sustainable development? (40) is not possible in the long term. Argue both sides.41

Sustainable development is not possible in the long

term because…

The report focused on three major parts what are they?

1.
Whereas
2.
3.

Expand on these three parts (oval boxes)

1.
however
Whereas

2.

On the other hand

3
In conclusion

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Notes and Definitions for values - A final check

Economic value
The resource can have a price. It can be determined by the market place. e.g a litre of
fresh bottled water has a price which is changeable.
Ecological value
These are essential for our survival but are almost impossible to put a value on. e.g
the freshness of air we breath in Prague.
Aesthetic value
How pretty something is. We do try to indirectly value these resources but it is
difficult. .e.g ?
Intrinsic value
•Similar to Aesthetic value but it includes ethical, religious and philosophical
perspectives. They have value independent of their use to humans. Biorights

• Eg Uluru (Ayres rock) has little value in terms of precious gems, workable gravel,
precious metals but it has enormous cultural value to the Australian Aborigines.
Coromandel
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 1.4 Sustainability pages 38 - 39
Sustainability / Sustainable Development
The use and management of resources (Natural Capital) at a rate that
allows natural regeneration and…
minimizes damage to the environment.

Note – Ecosystems provide us with services such as water

replenishment, flood protection, erosion protection;
And goods such as timber, fish and crops.

Activity- read pages 38 to 41 and fill in the 2 sided

work sheet.

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 1.4 Sustainability
Should management occur locally or globally?
Exam question

Why Local management ? Why Global management ?

Ecosystems can exist on small scales. Many resources cross local boundaries.
e.g. Ponds, small forests, local mountains e.g. Oceans, prairies, mountain chains

Human actions are cultural. May only apply The impacts are often global. E.g. removal of
locally. Global solutions may not apply. Amazon rain forests affect O2 levels globally.
e.g. traditional farming methods

Often small groups can act faster and more Global action helps us understand other
effectively. E.g. clean up of point source cultures and how sustainability is required by
pollution. all nations.
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 Match the terms and definitions
A. The use of resources (Natural Capital) at a rate that allows natural
regeneration and minimizes damage to the environment .
1. Intrinsic value
B. The store of raw materials in the ground, surface and atmosphere of
2. Replenishable resources the planet. (The resources of the Earth). Which can produce a
sustainable natural income.
3. Sustainability
C. These are essential for our survival but are almost impossible to put a
value on. e.g the freshness of air we breath in Prague.
4. Natural Capital

D. The amount of harvest. The amount of resources take.

5. Natural income

E. It is the point along a population increase curve before carrying

6. Ecological value capacity is reached where the maximum recruitment rate occurs. This
means you can take the maximum amount out of a population while
7. Yield still maintaining the original natural capital

8. Sustainable yield (new) F. The use of resources to provide products and services.

G. Similar to Aesthetic value but it includes ethical, religious and

9. Maximum Sustainable yield
philosophical perspectives. It has value independent of their use to
(new) humans.

H. The rate of increase in Natural Capital which can be taken without

reducing the original amount. May be estimated as the gain in
biomass (or energy) through growth and recruitment

I. These are abiotic resources- non living 36

 Match the terms and definitions
A. The use of resources (Natural Capital) at a rate that allows natural
regeneration and minimizes damage to the environment .
1. Intrinsic value G
B. The store of raw materials in the ground, surface and atmosphere of
2. Replenishable resources I the planet. (The resources of the Earth). Which can produce a
sustainable natural income.
3. Sustainability A
C. These are essential for our survival but are almost impossible to put a
value on. e.g the freshness of air we breath in Prague.
4. Natural Capital B

D. The amount of harvest. The amount of resources take.

5. Natural income F

E. It is the point along a population increase curve before carrying

6. Ecological value C capacity is reached where the maximum recruitment rate occurs. This
means you can take the maximum amount out of a population while
7. Yield D still maintaining the original natural capital

8. Sustainable yield H F. The use of resources to provide products and services.

G. Similar to Aesthetic value but it includes ethical, religious and

9. Maximum Sustainable yield E
philosophical perspectives. It has value independent of their use to
humans.

H. The rate of increase in Natural Capital which can be taken without

reducing the original amount. May be estimated as the gain in
biomass (or energy) through growth and recruitment

I. These are abiotic resources- non living 37

 What are the services provided by ecosystems?
Students should be able to discuss the value of
ecosystem services to a society.

Brainstorm briefly – which services do ecosystems

provide us with?

Look at table 1.1 page 43

Activity
1.Name and explain 4- 5 services and
2. give examples of where they occur.
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 Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA’s)
Page 44-47
1.Before any development project begins an assessment must be
done. (Baseline Study). (8 factors should be looked at).
2.It looks at the Environmental, social and economic impact of the
project. (Environment – what species are present, nos? Habitats?).
3.It predicts impacts and suggests ideas for improvements.
4.Each country decides how closely they follow the assessment.
5.A non-technical summary must be made to the public.
A Critique of EIA’s?
A. They are not all the same quality. Some countries have legal
requirements to follow the directives. Others not.
B. They often lack clear definitions.
C. Often, the economic gains will outweigh the negative impacts to the
environment and the project goes ahead with little change.
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 Environmental Impact Assessments page 39 (bullet points), 44- 47 new text
What is an Environmental Impact Assessment?

1. Who requires this assessment to be performed?

2. What is a baseline study?

3. What 8 factors should the baseline study include?

4. Are these assessments legally binding?

5. Why could they be ignored (what is the usual factor which allows these suggestions to be ignored)?

6. Case study – Three Gorges Dam. Video 2020 extra info if interested.
7. What was the need for this Dam?

8. What did the EIA suggest the impacts would be?

9. Were the recommendations followed? Why/why not?

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 Environmental Impact Assessments continued

1. Describe what the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment is. Page 44

2. How can this be used to assess/evaluate the progress of a project in terms of it’s sustainability?

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 Ecological Footprints page 47
Ecological footprints (EF) represent the hypothetical area of land
required by a society, group, or individual to fulfil all their resource
needs and assimilation of wastes.
Sustainability means using global resources at a rate that allows
natural regeneration and minimizes damage to the environment.

Activity
Go to one of the many websites and calculate your footprint.
What does this value you calculated mean? Explain in your own
words!
Are you living sustainably?

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 Ecological Footprints

Ecological footprints (EF) represent the hypothetical

area of land required by a society, group, or
individual to fulfil all their resource needs and
assimilation of wastes.
Sustainability means using global resources at a rate
that allows natural regeneration and minimizes
damage to the environment.

43
What general trend can you infer about changes in footprints?

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