ELASTIC IMPRESSION

MATERIALS
PRIYANKA MURALIDHARAN
PG 1ST YEAR
PROSTHODONTICS – CROWN AND BRIDGE
Contents
• Definition
• History
• Requirements
• Classification
• Hydrocolloids
• Elastomers
• Recent Advances
DEFINITION OF IMPRESSION
• Impression is a negative likeness or copy in reverse of a surface of an object, imprint of
the teeth for the use in dentistry. (GPT9)
• Impression is negative registration of the entire denture bearing, denture stabilizing, and
border seal area. (Levin)
• Impression is a record of negative form of the tissues of the oral cavity that forms the
basal seat of the denture. (Boucher)
History of Impression Materials
• Wax was the only impression material used in dentistry until the mid-19th century when gutta-percha first appeared.
• Then in 1857, Charles Stent created a thermoplastic modeling compound similar to today's impression compound. Still,
the problem with this material was that it was rigid and could not reproduce undercut areas.
• All the impression materials used until that date became rigid after setting and could not copy the oral tissues accurately.
• Thus, there was always a need for an impression material that could remain elastic even after setting. That is when agar,
a reversible hydrocolloid manufactured from algae, was introduced in dentistry. Although this jelly-like material was
elastic, it required a complicated procedure to be used as an impression material.
• When the algae used to manufacture agar was unavailable during the second world war, Americans used local algae to
manufacture another elastic impression material known as alginate, which has gained popularity since then.
• Alginate and agar have disadvantages, like dimensional instability and low tear strength, which led to the manufacture
of elastomeric (also known as rubber-based) impression materials.
• First came polysulfide, then condensation silicone followed by polyether, and then addition silicones

Dental Impression Materials Ranjan Gupta; Melina Brizuela.

Requirements of an impression material
• Fluid enough to flow
• Once placed, it should harden within few minutes to form a semirigid material that does not distort while
removal
• Must mot produce harmful effect on host’s tissues
• They should be relatively tasteless and odorless
• Dimensionally stable
• Easy to handle and manipulate.
• Satisfactory consistency and texture
• Readily wets oral tissues
• Elastic properties with freedom from permanent deformation after strain
• Adequate strength so it will not break or tear on removal from the mouth
Princinples and applications materials in dentistry Jack L Ferracane 2nd edition
Restorative Dental maerials Craig 11th edition
Classification of impression materials

Applied dental materials 9th Edition John F Mc Cabe

Jack L Ferracane Phillips
Van Noort
• Rigid
Plaster
Zinc oxide eugenol
• Elastic
Hydrocolloid
Agar (reversible)
Alginate (irreversible)
Elastomeric
Polysulphide
Polyether
Silicone addition and condensation
Hydrocolloids
Hydrocolloids Impression Materials
• Colloidal suspensions of polysaccharides in water.
• Molecules of the colloid remain dispersed by nature of the fact that they carry small
electrical charges and repel one another within the dispersing medium.
• When the fluid medium of the colloid is water it is normally referred to as hydrocolloid.
• In the sol form, they are fluid with low viscosity and there is a random arrangement of
the polysaccharide chains.
• In the gel form, the materials are more viscous and may develop elastic properties if the
long polysaccharide chains become aligned.
• The conversion from sol to gel forms the basis of the setting of the hydrocolloid
impression materials
• Gel formation involves the production of strong intermolecular cross-links between
polysaccharide chains.
• These materials do not require cooling in order to encourage gel formation and once
formed the gel does not readily revert to the sol form.
• These materials are the irreversible hydrocolloids (alginates).
• Intermolecular hydrogen bonds formed between adjacent
chains, enhances the elasticity of the gel
• On reheating, these bonds are readily destroyed and the
material reverts to the sol form.
• These materials are the reversible hydrocolloids (agar)
General Properties
• Dimensional stability
Syneresis
Imbibition
• Compatibility with Gypsum
• Accuracy
Dimensional stability
• Imbibition - the act or process of imbibing or absorbing (GPT-9)
• Syneresis - the separation of water from its component base (GPT-9)
• Storage medium such as 2% potassium sulphate solution or 100% relative humidity in a
storage chamber for agar impression reduces dimensional change
Linear contraction of a representative reversible Percent change in water content according to weight of
hydrocolloid an agar impression material in various storage media.
Compatibility with Gypsum
• Retarders
Agar contains Borax
Gelation process of alginate produces insoluble calcium alginate and sodium sulfate
• Solution
immersion of agar impression in 2% potassium sulphate solution
surface hardner
Reversible hydrocolloids (Agar)
• ANSI/ADA specification no. 11
• Agar is a complex polysaccharide which is extracted from seaweed.
• supplied as a gel in a flexible, toothpaste-like tube or syringe.
• Composition
component function Composition (%)
Agar Brush heap structure 13-17
Borate Strength 0.2-0.5
Sulfate Gypsum hardner 1-2
Wax, hard Filler 0.5-1.0
Thixotropix materials Thickener 0.3-0.5
Water Reaction medium balance

Science of Dental materials Phillips 12th Edition

ISO
Standard for dental aqueous impression materials
based on agar, ISO 1564.
• Type 1 high consistency
• Type 2 medium consistency
• Type 3 low consistency
• type 1 - material can be used for making impressions of complete or partial dental
arches with or without the use of syringe-extruded increments of type 2 or 3 material.
• type 2- materials are multi-purpose in application as they can also be used for making
impressions of complete and partial dental arches with or without the use of a syringe-
extruded increment, but these products can also themselves be syringe-extruded for use
in the combination technique.
• The type 3 materials are designed specifically for syringe use and are used with a type 1
or type 2 material in the combination technique.
• Sol to gel
• Liquifaction temperature- gel liquifies to sol
temperature – 70-100 degree Celsius
• Gelation temperature- sol to gel
temperature – 37-50 degree Celsius
Making the Agar impression

Liquifaction Chamber Storage Chamber Temperature Tempering Chamber

Temperature Temperature
100 degree 65 degrees 45 degrees
Gelation or setting of Agar
Mechanical Properties
• Poor tear resistance
• Poor dimensional stability
syneresis
imbibition
• Compressive strength 8000 g/cm2.
• Tear strength 800 to 900 g/cm
• Flexibility 4-15%
Clinical Application
• Impressions
partial denture
crown and bridge
Advantages
• Moist field OK
• Accurate and
• pleasant
• Hydrophilic
• Low cost
• Long shelf-life
Disadvantages
• Requires special equipment
• Thermal discomfort
• Tears easily
• Pour immediately
• Difficult to see margins and details
Cause of failures
• Grainy material
Inadequate boiling
Storage temperature too low
Storage time too long
• Tearing
Inadequate bulk
Premature removal from mouth
Syringe material partially gelled when tray was seated
• External Bubbles
Gelation of syringe material, preventing the flow
• Irregularly shaped voids
material too cold
• Rough chalky surface on stone model
Inadequate cleansing of impression
Excess water or hardening solution left in the impression
Premature removal of die
Improper manipulation of stone
Air drying of the impression before pouring
• Distortion
Impression not poured within 30 min
Movement of tray during gelation
Premature removal from mouth
Improper removal from mouth
Use of ice water during initial stages of gelation
Irreversible Hydrocolloid- Alginate
• ANSI/ADA specification No. 18
• Alginate impression materials are supplied as powders which are mixed with water.
Component Function Amount
Sodium or Potassium alginic acid Main reactive ingredient; forms 11-16
sol with water and becomes
cross-linked to form gel
CaSO4.2H2O or gypsum Source of Ca2+ions which cause 11-17
cross-linking of the alginate
chains
Na3PO4 Used to control the working time 1-3
Inert filler – such as Gives ‘body’ and enables easy 65-75
diatomaceous earth manipulation
Reaction Indicators Gives color change while setting

Applied dental materials 9th Edition John F Mc Cabe

Gelation Process
• Sodium alginate readily reacts with calcium
ions derived from the dissolved gypsum to
form calcium alginate.
• The replacement of monovalent sodium with
divalent calcium results in the cross-linking of
the alginate chains and the conversion of the
material from the sol to gel form.
• As the setting reaction proceeds, and the
degree of cross-linking increases, the gel
develops elastic properties.
Setting Reaction
Sodium Phosphate - retarder
• Reacts rapidly with calcium ions as they are formed giving insoluble calcium
phosphate:
• 3Ca2+ + 2Na3PO4 → Ca3(PO4)2 + 6Na+
• This reaction denies the supply of calcium ions required to complete the cross-linking
of alginate chains and thus extends the working time of the material.
• When all the sodium phosphate has reacted, calcium ions become available for reaction
with sodium alginate,
Controlling Setting Time
• Normal setting time
fast setting 1.5-3 min
slow setting 3-4.5 min
• Altering the temperature of water
• Retarders
Preparation of alginate impression material
Mechanical Properties
• Poor tear strength
• Poor dimensional stability
Syneresis
imbibition
• Low viscosity
• Setting time Fast set- 1.5-3 minutes, normal setting – 3-4.5 minutes
• Flexibility ADA specification 5%-20%
• Compressive strength- 5000-9000gm/cm2
• Tear strength- 380 -700 g/cm2
Compressive Strength
Combined reversible and irreversible technique
• Also Known as Laminate Technique or alginate- agar method.

• loading a conventional impression tray with alginate material and syringing reversible
hydrocolloid around the region of the mouth to be recorded.

• Good surface detail reproduction

Applied dental materials 9th Edition John F Mc Cabe

Disadvantage of laminate technique
• Bond between agar and alginate is not strong
• Alginate displaces agar
• Dimensional inaccuracy of alginate limits its use to single units
Clinical Application
• Recording impressions of edentulous and partially dentate arches.
• In orthodontics, they are used for recording impressions prior to appliance construction
and
• They are used extensively for recording impressions for study model construction.
Advantages
1. Non-toxic, non-irritant.

2. No special equipment required.

3. Acceptable odor, taste.

4. Sufficiently elastic to be used in undercut area.

5. Sufficiently fluid to record fine detail.

6. Compatible with gypsum products/no-separating medium required.

7. Moist field is ok
Disadvantages
1. Dimensionally unstable.

2. Tears if undercuts are severe.

3. Difficult to sterilize.
4. Poor shelf life if stored
Modified Alginate
• Alginates modified by the incorporation of silicone polymers
• Supplied in two paste
• They show marginally better fine-detail reproduction and tear resistance
• but have poor dimensional stability.
Disinfection
• Household bleach (1-10) dilution
• Iodophors
• Synthetic phenols
• Wrap the impression for 10 minutes
Failures in Alginate impression
• Grainy material
Improper mixing
Prolonged mixing
Excessive gelation
• Tearing
Inadequate bulk
Moisture contamination
Premature removal from mouth
Prolonged mixing
• External bubbles
Undue gelation preventing flow
Air incorporated during mixing
• Irregularly shaped voids
Moisture or debris on tissue
• Rough or chalky stone model
Inadequate cleaning of impression
Excess water left in impression
Premature removal of the impression
Model left in impression too long
Improper manipulation of stone
• Distortion
Impression not poured immediately
Movement of tray during gelation
Premature removal from mouth
Improper removal from mouth
Recent Advances in Alginate
Dustless Alginate
• Developed to eradicate silicosis
• An attempt was made to increase the density of siliceous fibers by coating them with
dedusting agents like glycerin, glycol, polyethylene glycol, and polypropylene glycol
• Sepiolite (natural mineral fiber containing magnesium silicate 20%) was added to the
alginate materials that helps in holding alginate particles together to prevent the leaping
of dust particles.

International Journal of Dental Materials 2019; 1(2)

Advances in alginate impression materials: a review
Alginate in the form of two paste system
• Prevent the contamination of powder, and inconsistency in dispensing a certain amount
of powder.
• Base paste and catalyst paste.
• Base paste contains soluble alginate, water, and fillers,
• Catalyst paste contains calcium salts, viscous liquids like liquid paraffin and
magnesium hydroxide as a pH stabilizer
Self Disinfected Alginates
• Prevent crossinfection and safety of patients, dentists, and dental personnel.
• Quaternary ammonium compounds, chlorhexidine, bisquanidine compounds,
chlorhexidine, didecydimethylammonium chloride
• Addition of silver nanoparticles (80-100nm) is more effective against S. aureus,
Lactobacillus acidophilus, Actinomyces viscosus, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Extended pour alginates
• CAVEX Color Change (Darby Dental Supply, USA)
• Extend a Pour (Dux Dental Products).
• Cavex color change material can be preserved for about
• 100hrs and extend a pour can be preserved up to 4 weeks
Alginate with polyacrylamide incorporation
• A thickening and stabilizing agent such as 0.01-0.25wt% polyacrylamide (molecular
weight 200,000 to 6,000,000) were incorporated into the conventional alginates
• Resulted in improving the mixing characteristics, and the formation of smooth alginate
sol with water
Elastomers
Definition
• Elastomer : a polymer that has a glass transition temperature that is below its service
temperature (usually room temperature); these materials are characterized by low
stiffness and extremely large elastic strains
(GPT–9)

• Elastomeric impression material: a group of flexible chemical polymers that are either
chemically or physically cross-linked; generally, they can be easily stretched and
rapidly recover their original dimensions when applied stresses are released
(GPT-9)
Elastomers
• Group of synthetic polymer based impression materials that are chemically crosslinked
when set and that can be stretched and rapidly recover to their original dimension when
applied stress is relieved
• ANSI/ADA specification no. 19
• Four types
• Polysulphides;
• Silicone rubbers (condensation curing type);
• Silicone rubbers (addition curing type);
• Polyethers.
Classification of elastomeric impression materials
General Properties
• Working and Setting Time
• Reproduction of details
• Rheological Properties
• Elasticity and Viscoelasticity
• Tear strength
• Dimensional Stability
• Wettability
• Biocompatibility
• Shelf Life
Working Time and Setting Time
• Working time begins at the start of mixing and ends just before elastic properties have
developed
must be greater than mixing time
• Setting time elapsed from beginning of mixing until curing process is sufficiently
advanced.
• Polymerization may continue even after setting.
• Decreases with increase in temperature
• Avoid changing base/catalyst ratio
• Decreases with increase in filler content
Rheological Properties
• It is the study of deformation and flow characteristics of matter
• Shear thinning – less viscous when stressed and recovers when at rest
• 2 categories of this phenomenon are
Pseudoplasticity
Thixotropicity
• Pseudoplastic - increasing shear stress leads to decreasing viscosity, and recovers
viscosity after stress is removed

• Thixotropic - does not flow until a sufficient/threshold level of energy in the form of
impact or vibration force is applied to overcome yield stress of the material. (At rest it
takes a specific time to recover previous viscous state)

• Drip/run-off tests
Elasticity and Viscoelasticity
• Deformation is seen when is removed from mouth
• Recovery of elastic deformation occurs over time
• Elastic solid + viscous liquid
• High elastic limit means minimum deformation

• Permanent deformation
Polysulfide > polyether > condensation silicone > addition silicone
Tear Strength
• Amount of force needed to tear, divided by thickness.
• It is the resistance of an elastomer to fracture when
subjected to tensile force acting perpendicular to a
surface flow
• Polysulfide highest, silicones lowest
• Influenced by consistency and manner of removing
materials
• Thinning agent will reduce tear strength but increase the
flexibility
• Polysulfides > Polyether > Silicones
Dimensional Stability
• Dimensional stability
• Dimensional Accuracy
• Reasons
1. condensation reaction by-product
2. thermal contraction
3. polymerization shrinkage
4.viscoelastic behaviour
6. plastic deformation
Wettability and Hydrophilization
• Low contact angle means more wettability
• Silicones have high contact angle 100 degree
• Leads to voids
• Use of surfactant
Biocompatibility
Shelf Life
• Store in a dry, cool environment to avoid deterioration
• If liquid expressed with material it is indication of
plasticizer segregation
manufacturing error
temperature extremes during storage
Disinfection
Polysulfide
• Two-paste – base and catalyst paste
Component Function

Base Polysulphide prepolymer with terminal and pendant This is further polymerised and cross-linked
to form rubber
thiol (–SH) groups
Plasticizer-di-n-butyl phthalate To control viscosity

Inert filler – possibly chalk or titanium dioxide To give ‘body’, control viscosity and modify
physical properties
Catalyst Lead dioxide or other alternative oxidizing agent

Sulphur Involved in setting reaction

Inert oil – normally paraffinic type or di-n-butyl To form a paste with PbO2 and sulphur
phthalate
• Base paste
HS(C2H4 − OCH2 − OC2H4 − SS)23 − C2H4 −OCH2 − OC2H4 − SH

• Classification according to the viscosity

• light-bodied
regular-bodied and
heavy-bodied
Setting Reaction
Advantages
• Long working time
• High tear resistance
• Margins easily seen
• Moderate cost
Disadvantages
• Requires custom tray
• Stretching leads to
• Distortion
• Compatible with stone
• Stains clothing
• Obnoxious odor
Condensation Silicone
• Supplied as
base paste
low viscosity catalyst paste or
two putty system
Composition
Composition Function
Paste Hydroxyl-terminated Undergoes cross-linking to form rubber
polydimethylsiloxane (liquid silicone
prepolymer)
Inert filler such as silica Gives ‘body’, controls viscosity and
modifies physical properties
Liquid Alkyl silicate such as tetraethylsilicate Acts as cross-linking agent
Tin compound such as dibutyl tin Acts as a reaction catalyst
dilaurate
Setting Reaction
Advantages
1. Putty for custom tray

2. Clean and pleasant

3. Good working time

4. Margins easily seen  

Disadvantages

1. High polymerization shrinkage

2. Volatile by-product

3. Low tear strength

4. Hydrophobic
Addition Silicone
• Also known as Polyvinyl siloxane (PVS) or Vinyl polysiloxane.
• Base paste – Polymethylsiloxane + Divinylpolysiloxane+ fillers
• Catalyst paste – Divinylpolysiloxane + Platinum salt (chloroplatinic acid)+ fillers
Setting Reaction
Clinical application
• crown and bridgework or denture manufacture
• heavy-bodied materials used to support light body in
stock trays for crown and bridge impressions,
Advantages
1. Superior dimensional stability.

2. Can be poured more than once.

3. Pleasant odor and appearance.

4. Good shelf life.

5. Shorter setting time.

6. Adequate tear strength.

7. Extremely high accuracy.

8. Less distortion on removal.

•  
Disadvantages
1. Hydrophobic (No flow if sulcus is moist)

2. Low tear strength

3. Putty displaces wash

4. Putty too stiff

5. Difficult to pour cast

6. Hydrogen gas may evolve from some materials.

7. Most difficult to pour, requires special care.

8. Expensive.
Problems associated
• Distortion while removing the impression
solution – 1. rigid metal stock trays
2. initial putty impression can be recorded with a polythene spacing sheet
between the putty and the teeth.
• Platinum catalyst easy to poison, inhibiting the set of the material.
solution- 1. rubber gloves should not be used
Polyethers
• Introduced in Germany in late 1960s

• Two types
1. based on ring opening polymerization of aziridine rings
2. based on acid catalyzed condensation polymerization of polyether polymer with
alkoxysilane terminal groups.
Composition
Component Function
Base Paste (Large Tube ) Imine-terminated prepolymer Becomes cross-linked to form rubber
Inert filler – silica To give ‘body’ control viscosity and
physical properties
Plasticizer – e.g. phthalate To aid in mixing
Catalyst Paste (Small Tube) Ester derivative of aromatic sulphonic acid Initiates cross-linking
Inert filler- silica To form paste
Plasticizer - pthalate
Setting Reaction
Advantages
1. Finish line easily read.

2. Superior Dimensional stability.

3. Fast setting.

4. Cast can be poured 1-7 days later.

5. Pleasant odor & appearance.

6. Good shelf life.

 
Disadvantages
1. Custom tray required.

2. Very stiff.

3. Short working time.

4. Least tear strength.

5. More expensive.

6. Aromatic sulphonic acid ester catalyst – Skin irritant.

Making the Impression
• Preparing the tray
• Managing the tissue
• Preparing the material
• Making an impression
• Removing the impression
• Preparing stone cast and dies
Impression tray
• Custom tray preferred especially for polysulfide
• Severe undercuts avoid custom tray
• stock tray should be rigid
• Prior to impression making tray adhesive is applied uniformly
• Slight rough surface on the tray improves the adhesion
Tissue management
• Gingival Retraction cord
displaces gingival sulcus laterally away from the
margin
• Electrosurgical unit
• Soft tissue laser
Manipulation of Impression Materials
• Hand mixing
• Static mixing
• Dynamic mixing
Hand Mixing
• Dispense the same length of materials on mixing pad or
glass slab
• Catalyst paste carried on stainless steel spatula and brought
to the mixing pad
• Mix both the paste until uniform with no streaks of either
paste visible on the mix
• If one component is liquid add it dropwise corresponding to
base paste length
• Two putty system equal number of scoops can be used
Static Mixing
Mixing Tip
Dynamic Mixing
Making the Impressions
• Multiple-mix Technique
• Monophase Technique
• Putty-Wash Technique
Multiple-Mix Technique
MonophaseTechnique / Single viscosity Technique
Putty-Wash Technique
Removal of the Impression
• Remove the impression only after sufficient curing has occurs to avoid distortion
• Typically should be ready for removal within 10 minutes from the time of mixing
• Quick snap
• First break the physical adhesion between the tissues and the impression
• Second stretch the impression enough to pass under height of contour of hard tissue
Failures in Elastomeric Impression Materials
• Rough or uneven surfaces
Premature removal from the mouth
Too rapid polymerization
Latex
High base/catalyst ratio
• Bubbles
Air incorporated during mixing
• Irregularly shaped voids
moisture or debris on surface of teeth
• Rough or chalky stone cast
Inadequate cleaning of impression
Excess water that is not blown off of the impression
Excess wetting agent left on impression
Premature removal of cast; improper powder/water ratio of stone
Failure to delay pour of addition silicone that does not contain a palladium salt for at least
20 min
• Distortion
Resin tray not aged sufficiently; still undergoing polymerization shrinkage
Lack of adhesion of elastomer to the tray caused by not applying enough coats of adhesive, filling
tray with material too soon after applying adhesive, or using incorrect adhesive
Lack of mechanical retention to the impression tray
Excessive bulk of material
Development of elastic properties in the material before tray is fully seated
Continued pressure against impression material that has developed elastic properties
Movement of tray during polymerization
Premature removal of impression from mouth
Improper removal of impression from mouth
Delayed pouring of the polysulfide or condensation silicone impression
Recent Advances
Hydrophilized Silicon
• Surfactants have been added to addition silicones by manufacturers to reduce the
contact angle
• improve wettability
• nonionic surfactants
• oligoether or polyether substructure as the hydrophilic part and a silicone-compatible
hydrophobic part
• Diffusion controlled ion transfer

Restorative Dental Materials Robert G. Craig 11th edition

Bite registration Silicone
• Addition silicones and polyethers have been formulated for use as bite registration
materials.
• Most of the products are addition silicones
• Most are supplied in automix cartridges.
• Working time – automix addition silicone – 0.5-3 minutes
• Commercial name – Futar D
Registrado X-tra

Restorative Dental Materials Robert G. Craig 11th edition

Evaluation of the Elastic Properties of Thirteen Silicone Interocclusal Recording Materials
Vinyl polyether siloxane
• Combination of Polyvinyl siloxane and Polyether
• More flexible with high-tensile energy
• Remarkable hydrophilicity
• Can be used in areas of undercut
• It is odorless and tasteless

Mechanical Properties of a New Vinyl Polyether Silicone in Comparison to Vinyl Polysiloxane and Polyether Elastomeric Impression Materials ,
Pragya Pandey, Sneha Mantri, Abhilasha Bhasin, and Suryakant C. Deogade
Polyether urethane dimethacrylate photoinitiated
elastomeric impression material
• Composition
Polyether urethane dimethacrylate resin that contains a diketone initiator
Amine accelerator
Silica filler 40-60%
Plasticizer, coupling agents, pigments, and flavoring are added
• Polymerization is photoinitiated by blue light in the wavelength range of 400 to 500 nm
• Available in
Light body and Heavy body
Properties
• Tear Strength- light body 5900gm/cm
heavy body 7400 gm/cm
• Hydrophilic (<90 degree), good wettability
• Dimensionally stable
• Detailed reproduction
• Working time – 25 minutes
• short setting time

Properties of a new polyether urethane dimethacrylate photoinitiated elastomeric impression material Robert G. Craig, Ph.D.,* and Pamela H. Hare, B.T.*
Digital Impressions
• material and armamentarium used in analog impressions are avoided (e.g., impression
trays, impression material, gypsum);
• the communication between the clinician and laboratory technician is improved
• a soft copy can be stored;
• Cross infections can be minimized due to absence of physically stored casts.
References
• Science of Dental materials Phillips 12th Edition
• Princinples and applications materials in dentistry Jack L Ferracane 2nd edition
• Applied dental materials 9th Edition John F Mc Cabe
• Restorative Dental Materials Robert G. Craig 11th edition
• Dental Impression Materials Ranjan Gupta; Melina Brizuela.
• International Journal of Dental Materials 2019; 1(2) Advances in alginate impression materials: a review
• Mechanical Properties of a New Vinyl Polyether Silicone in Comparison to Vinyl Polysiloxane and Polyether
Elastomeric Impression Materials ,Pragya Pandey, Sneha Mantri, Abhilasha Bhasin, and Suryakant C. Deogade
• Evaluation of the Elastic Properties of Thirteen Silicone Interocclusal Recording Materials
• Properties of a new polyether urethane dimethacrylate photoinitiated elastomeric impression material Robert G.
Craig, Ph.D., and Pamela H. Hare, B.T.