CHAPTER 5.

0:
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN

DCC30103 – HIGHWAY & TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

 COURSE OUTLINE
CLO 1 : Apply appropriate model to solve problem in highway and traffic
engineering
CLO 2 : Assesses design performance for highway and traffic engineering
based on appropriate specification with consideration of public safety, society
and environment

5.1 Assess the design of flexible pavement

– 5.1.1 Assess the design factor that influence the
COURSE thickness of the pavement
SYLLABUS • Traffic Load
• Design Life
• Sub grade Condition

5.2 Apply the Public Work Department flexible design

pavement method in designing flexible pavement.
Do you still
remember?
CAN YOU RELATE
DESIGN FACTOR OF
THICKNESS
TRAFFIC LOADING
Traffic loading including:-
–Axles and wheel / tire load
–Arrangement of axles and
tire
–Tire pressure and contact
area (P = W/A)
- Repetition of load
TRAFFIC LOADING - AXLES AND WHEEL / TIRE LOAD

• Wheel load on pavement is an important factor to determine the

pavement thickness to be adopted.
• The wheel load is acts at particular point on pavement and cause
deformations.
• although the size and weight of vehicles using pavement vary, the
most important consideration in pavement design and performance is
the weight of each axle and tire
• If the vehicle contains dual wheels on one side of axle, then convert it
into equivalent single wheel load. Dual wheeled axle vehicles control
the contact pressure within the limits.
TRAFFIC LOADING - AXLES CONFIGURATION

 Axles are the important part of the vehicles which enables the
wheels to rotate while moving.
 By providing multiple axles, vehicles can carry more load. So, the
axle load also influences the design of pavement.
 In the layer theory of flexible pavement design wheels on one side of
axles are considered to design the pavement. Similarly in the plate
theory of rigid pavement design wheels on both sides are considered.
TRAFFIC LOADING – TIRE CONTACT & PRESSURE

 When the vehicle is moving on pavement, the pressure

developed between the tire and pavement.
 If the tire is low-pressure tire, then contact pressure will be
greater than tire pressure. If it is a high-pressure tire, then
contact pressure will be less than tire pressure.
 The original shape of the contact area is generally elliptical.
But to ease the calculations circular shape is considered.
TRAFFIC LOADING – REPETITION OF LOAD
• - Every time an axle load acts on a pavement , damage is inflicted
onto the pavement.
• Traffic composition – “mixture” of varying weight & no. of axles
• According to this concept, there is a common method use in
application of standard axle load where ;
– a standard axle unit causing the unit destroyed and similar effects is
calculated
–  the standard axle load weight Ls used is 80 kN or 8200kg or 18000 lb
• Standard axle, Ls = 80kN (8160 kg @ 18 000 Ib)
• The decaying power is 4 and the equivalence factor symbolized as e;
where e = (L / Ls)4 (L : Tire @ axle load)
 SAMPLE CALCULATION OF
EQUIVALENCE FACTOR, E
 Question:
o The overall weight of a lorry was 260 kN and channeled through the
arrangement of three axles and axle weight of each is as shown in the
diagram below

 Solution: 100 kN 90 kN 70 kN

i. Tandem Axle (2 or more axles)

e(3 axles) = (L1/80)4 + (L2/80)4 + (L3/80)4
= (100/80)4 + (90/80)4 + (70/80)4 = 4.63
ii. Single Axle
E(1 axle) = (260/80)4 = 111.57
Conclusion: Equivalence factor value and its decaying power reduces for
24 times (111.57÷4.63=24) if the axles arrangement is multiply.
TRY THIS
DESIGN OF PAVEMENT (LAYERS
THICKNESS)
5.2 APPLY THE PUBLIC WORK
DEPARTMENT FLEXIBLE
. DESIGN
PAVEMENT METHOD IN DESIGNING
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
STEPS IN DESIGNING THICKNESS FP (
JKR 5/85 PINDAAN 2013 NEW)
• Traffic data is a key input parameter for structural design of pavements. This
information is needed to determine the loads that must be supported over the
selected design life of the pavement. Two elements of traffic load which are of
particular importance are:
– Standard axle or wheel load.
– Traffic spectrum and traffic volume expressed as number of standard axle loads assumed
during the design life of the pavement.

• The Equivalent Standard Axle Load (ESAL) in Malaysia is 80 kN, which

corresponds to the standard axle load used in the AASHTO pavement design
procedure.
• Traffic volume is calculated from a known or estimated volume of commercial
vehicles (CV) and axle load spectrum. Axle loads of passenger cars are too low
to cause significant pavement distress; therefore, traffic counts and axle load
spectra used for pavement design are based on the volume and type of
commercial vehicles. Traffic data that are considered in this Manual include:
– Number of commercial vehicles during Year 1 of Design Period, which is the
expected year of completion of construction.
– Vehicle class and axle load distribution.
– Directional and lane distribution factors.
– Traffic growth factors.
• Three types of raw traffic data are typically collected and entered into a data base; vehicle
counts, vehicle classification, and load data. Based on current Malaysian practice of traffic
characterisation, two types of data are available for structural pavement design:

– Traffic volume and percent commercial vehicles from the JKR national
– traffic data base (administered by the Highway Planning Unit or HPU).

• Axle load studies, which provide information about the axle load spectrum for selected types of
roads and highways in Malaysia. Axle load studies provide information about the type of
commercial vehicles and axle loads for a specific road section. Axle configurations and
corresponding load equivalence factors (LEF) used as basis for this Manual are shown in Table
2.1.
• The procedure for calculating the Traffic Category to be used as design input
(number of 80 kN ESALs over Design Period, see Table 2.5), is as follows:

1. From traffic counts for the project under consideration (information provided by
HPU for the past 5 or more years), determine:
– a. Initial Average Daily Traffic in one direction (ADT); the average should be based
on a minimum of 3 days, 24 hours per day. If traffic count covers a time period of
06:00 to 22:00 hours, multiply the traffic count reported by HPU with a factor of 1.2.
– b. Percentage of Commercial Vehicles (CV) with an un2laden weight of more than
1.5 tons (PCV ) and break down into vehicle categories (shown in Table 2.1).
– c. Average Annual Traffic Growth Factor (r) for CV.
2. Determine the following information from the geometric design of the road for which the
structural pavement design is carried out:
a. Number of lanes.
b. Terrain conditions (flat; rolling; mountainous).

3. Select Design Period based on economic and social consideration. Design period of 10 years is
recommended for low volume roads and other rural roads. A minimum design period of 20 years
is recommended for roads having medium to high volume traffic.
Note: The design period chosen shall be checked against Maximum Hourly One Way Traffic
Flow capacity (refer to A Guide on Geometric Design of Roads REAM GL2/2002). If the traffic capacity
is exceeded before the d design period, the designer may reduce the design period used in the
design accordingly. Alternatively, the design period may be allowed to exceed the time taken to reach
traffic capacity. In this regard, a proper pavement evaluation works shall be carried out if future road
upgrading works is deemed necessary.
• Calculate the Design Traffic (Number of ESALs) for the Design Lane
• and Base Year Y1 (First Year of Design Period) using the following
• formula:
ESAL Y1 = ADT x 365 x PCV x 3.7 x L x T H (1)
where;
• ESALY1 = Number of ESALs for the Base Year (Design Lane)
• ADT = Average Daily Traffic
• PCV = Percentage of CV (Un2Laden Weight > 1.5 ton
• L = Lane Distribution Factor (refer to Table 2.2)
• T = Terrain Factor (refer to Table 2.3)
• If site specific distribution of traffic by vehicle type is available, Equation (1) shall be refined as follows;
ESAL Y1 = [ADT vc1x LEF1+ ADTvc2 x LEF2 + H + ADTvc4 x LEF4] x 365 x L x T …… (2)
• where;
– ADTVC2 , etc = Average Daily Number of Vehicles in each Vehicle Class
– LEF2, etc = Load Equivalence Factors of applicable vehicle class
– Other symbols as shown for Equation (1)
• Other design input factors used in Equations (1) and (2) are provided
in Tables 2.2 and 2.3 below.
• Calculate the Design Traffic (Number of ESALs) for the Design Period (Design Life in Years) using the following
formula;

– Design Traffic ESALDES = ESALY1 x [(1 + r)n-1] (3)

r
• where;
– ESALDES = Design Traffic for the Design Lane in one Direction (determines the Traffic Category used as Basis for selecting a Pavement Structure
from the Catalogue)
– ESALY1 = Number of ESALs for the Base Year (Equation 1 or 2)
r = Average Annual Traffic Growth Factor for Design Period
n = Number of Years in Design Period

– Alternatively, the following simplified Equation (3a) shall be used in conjunction with the Total Growth Factor shown in Table
2.4 below.
• Design Traffic ESALDES = ESALY1 x TGF (3a)
 Properties of SubGrade

• Subgrade strength is one of the most important factors in determining pavement thickness,
composition of layers and overall pavement performance. The magnitude and consistency of
support that is provided by the subgrade is dependent on soil type, density and moisture
conditions during construction and changes that may occur over the service life of a pavement.
• For pavement design purposes, several parameters shall be used to categories subgrade support.
Traditionally, the California Bearing Ratio (CBR) has been widely used for this purpose.
Mechanistic pavement design procedures require elastic modulus and Poisson’s ratio as input for
all pavement layers, including the subgrade which is usually treated as an isotropic semi infinite
elastic medium. For this Manual, CBR has been retained as a design tool; however, direct
measurement of elastic stiffness values of the subgrade is recommended whenever feasible.
Elastic stiffness values used for the design of the pavement structures presented in this Manual
are shown in Table 2.6 along with the CBR values used as input values for selecting pavement
structures from the catalogue.
• A minimum CBR of 5% is recommended for pavements that have to
support traffic volumes corresponding to Traffic Classes T1 through
T5. If the subgrade (cut or fill) does not meet this minimum CBR
requirement, at least 300 mm of unsuitable subgrade soil shall be
replaced or stabilized to ensure that the selected minimum CBR value
is obtained under due consideration of applicable moisture conditions
and probability of meeting the design input value. For road pavements
designed for large volumes of traffic (Traffic Classes T 4 and T 5), a
minimum subgrade strength corresponding to CBR of 12% is
recommended. For pavement design purposes, the use of average
CBR or sub2grade modulus test results is not recommended; it would
signify that there is only a 50% probability that the design input value
is met.
• Design Period and Reliability
• A pavement design process cannot guarantee with certainty that a constructed pavement will perform exactly
as intended by the designer. Key reasons for this fact are:
– Current design methodologies do not model exactly stresses and strains that occur in pavements due to environment
and traffic loads.
– Traffic volume and axle load spectra used as design input are approximations.
– Material properties used as design input values are simplifications of complex and variable conditions that occur in
subgrade, crushed aggregate base and asphalt layers.
– A construction process does usually not produce a pavement incomplete conformance with design and specifications.
• Because of this variability, a concept of reliability based on statistical parameters should be adopted in
pavement design. Reliability is an expression of the probability that a pavement constructed with reasonable
conformance to design and specifications will support the design traffic for the intended design period without
significant distress.
• For Traffic Category T 3 through T 5, a design life of 20 years is
recommended. For low volume roads and other rural roads (T 1 and T
2), a design life of 10 years may be adequate. The above design life and
a probability of 85% were used as basis for designing the pavement
structures presented in this Manual.
• A catalogue from which pavement structures can be selected for a range
of sub2grade support conditions and traffic volumes is presented in the
following Figures 3.1 through 3.6. These pavement cross sections have
been designed for roads and highways that are typical for conditions in
Malaysia. For rural and other low volume roads, either cross sections
from this catalogue (Traffic Category: < 1 million ESALs) or pavement
structures provided in Table 4.1of Section 4.1 can be used. For
pavements with unusually severe loading conditions, such as container
terminals or other areas where pavements are exposed to high loads and
long loading times, the use of a mechanistic design procedure and of
special high performance paving materials is recommended.
• Pavement materials used in this catalogue are shown in Figure 2.3 and
included in the JKR Standard Specifications for Road Works,
JKR/SPJ/2008 –Section 4. Layer thickness in Figures 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4,
3.5 and 3.6 are shown in mm.
•
 Pavements for Low Volume Roads
• Low volume road pavements can be designed using pavement cross
sections shown in the catalogue under Traffic Category T 1 (< 1.0 million
ESALs over the design life of the pavement) or using Table 4.1 below.
Column 3 (500 to 1000 x 1000 ESALs) is identical to Category T 1.
Lower traffic volumes shown in Table 4.1 below offer alternative designs
for very low traffic volumes. Pavement structures shown in Table 4.1
include three Sub2Categories of Traffic and three types of material: a
bituminous surface course (BSC), a crushed aggregate base course (CAB)
and granular sub2base course (GSB).
 Heavy Duty Pavements for Special Applications

• Pavements that need to support either sustained heavy loads or channelised

repeated load applications that are well in excess of traditional traffic loading
patterns should be designed using a mechanistic design methodology in
conjunction with special paving materials that offer high strength and stiffness
under both dynamic and static loading conditions.
• Design programs listed in Sub2Section 3.4 of this Manual can be used for heavy
duty pavement design. If Asphalt Institute SW-1is used, it should be run in the
Advanced Structural Analysis Mode (DAMA); alternatively, the methodology
described in MS 23: Heavy Equipment (also contained in the program CDSW-1)
can be used. For strategically important projects, sufficient resources and time
should be set aside to allow design analysis using different methodologies and
materials.
• In addition to heavy duty polymer modified or fibre reinforced asphalt mixtures,
thick layers of cement stabilized granular material or special paving materials
such as semi2rigid paving material (also termed Resin Modified Pavement or
RMP) should be considered for such pavements. Pavement design should
preferably be carried out in close cooperation with a supplier of special paving
materials, to ensure that such paving materials are appropriately characterized.
In addition, mechanistic testing of paving materials used in the design is
strongly recommended; selected test parameters should be representative of
environment and loading conditions to which the pavement will be exposed.
EXAMPLE 1
table 2.1 Table 2.3

Table
2.2
So we get value for T and
CBR where T3 and SG2
EXAMPLE 2
• Consession toll-road of four lane freeway are designed to be
constructed using full-depth asphalt pavement. The average daily
traffic is 9870 vehicles which 15% are commercial vehicles with un-
laden weight of more than 1.5 tons. Calculate the design traffic (traffic
category) using JKR 5/85 amendment 2013 method for over 20 years
design life of flat terrain factor and 7.0% annual traffic growth by the
given information below.

ADT based on HPU survey (from 06:00 to 22:00 hours)

Class Traffic Count

CV1 850

CV2 650

CV3 430

CV4 96
• Step 1
Development of design input
ADT based on HPU Survey
(from 06:00 to 22:00 hours)
- CV1 = 850 x 1.2 = 120

• Step 2

• Step 3
• Step 4
EXAMPLE 3
• Design a road pavement for a 2-lane highway with 3000 vehicles in
both directions (with one lane in one direction). The following
additional project related information is available; PCV = 20 % (no
detailed break-down by vehicle type) , Type of Terrain= rolling)
Design Life = 20 years , Annual Traffic Growth = 7.0%. Results from
Sub-Grade testing; CBR Mean =22%, CBR Standard Deviation =
3.6%, Probability 85% (Normal Deviate = 1.385)
 REHAB
TECHNIQUE