+
William Stallings
Computer Organization
and Architecture
10th Edition
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NJ. All rights reserved.
+ Chapter 13
Instruction Sets: Addressing Modes and
Formats
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Addressing Modes
Immediate
Direct
Indirect
Register
Register indirect
Displacement
Stack
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Table 13.1
Basic Addressing Modes
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+ Immediate Addressing
Simplest form of addressing
Operand = A
This mode can be used to define and use constants or set initial values of
variables
Typically the number will be stored in twos complement form
The leftmost bit of the operand field is used as a sign bit
Advantage:
No memory reference other than the instruction fetch is required to obtain the
operand, thus saving one memory or cache cycle in the instruction cycle
Disadvantage:
The size of the number is restricted to the size of the address field, which, in
most instruction sets, is small compared with the word length
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Direct Addressing
Address field contains
the effective address
of the operand
Effective address
(EA) = address field
(A)
Was common in
earlier generations of
computers
Requires only one
memory reference and
no special calculation
Limitation is that it
provides only a
limited address space
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+
Indirect Addressing
Reference to the address of a word in memory which contains a full-length
address of the operand
EA = (A)
Parentheses are to be interpreted as meaning contents of
Advantage:
For a word length of N an address space of 2N is now available
Disadvantage:
Instruction execution requires two memory references to fetch the operand
One to get its address and a second to get its value
A rarely used variant of indirect addressing is multilevel or cascaded indirect
addressing
EA = ( . . . (A) . . . )
Disadvantage is that three or more memory references could be required to fetch an
operand
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Register Addressing
Address field
refers to a register
rather than a main EA = R
memory
address
Advantages: Disadvantage:
• Only a small address • The address space is
field is needed in the very limited
instruction
• No time-consuming
memory references
are required
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+
Register Indirect Addressing
Analogous to indirect addressing
The only difference is whether the address field refers to a memory
location or a register
EA = (R)
Address space limitation of the address field is overcome by having
that field refer to a word-length location containing an address
Uses one less memory reference than indirect addressing
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+
Displacement Addressing
Combines the capabilities of direct addressing and register indirect addressing
EA = A + (R)
Requires that the instruction have two address fields, at least one of which is
explicit
The value contained in one address field (value = A) is used directly
The other address field refers to a register whose contents are added to A to produce
the effective address
Most common uses:
Relative addressing
Base-register addressing
Indexing
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Relative Addressing
The implicitly referenced register is the program counter (PC)
• The next instruction address is added to the address field to produce the EA
• Typically the address field is treated as a twos complement number for this operation
• Thus the effective address is a displacement relative to the address of the instruction
Exploits the concept of locality
Saves address bits in the instruction if most memory references are
relatively near to the instruction being executed
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+
Base-Register Addressing
The referenced register contains a main memory address and the
address field contains a displacement from that address
The register reference may be explicit or implicit
Exploits the locality of memory references
Convenient means of implementing segmentation
In some implementations a single segment base register is employed
and is used implicitly
In others the programmer may choose a register to hold the base
address of a segment and the instruction must reference it explicitly
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Indexing
The address field references a main memory address and the referenced register
contains a positive displacement from that address
The method of calculating the EA is the same as for base-register addressing
An important use is to provide an efficient mechanism for performing iterative
operations
Autoindexing
Automatically increment or decrement the index register after each reference to it
EA = A + (R)
(R) (R) + 1
Postindexing
Indexing is performed after the indirection
EA = (A) + (R)
Preindexing
Indexing is performed before the indirection
EA = (A + (R))
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+
Stack Addressing
A stack is a linear array of locations
Sometimes referred to as a pushdown list or last-in-first-out queue
A stack is a reserved block of locations
Items are appended to the top of the stack so that the block is partially filled
Associated with the stack is a pointer whose value is the address of the top of the stack
The stack pointer is maintained in a register
Thus references to stack locations in memory are in fact register indirect addresses
Is a form of implied addressing
The machine instructions need not include a memory reference but
implicitly operate on the top of the stack
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Instruction Formats
Must include an
Define the layout opcode and, For most
of the bits of an implicitly or instruction sets
instruction, in explicitly, indicate more than one
terms of its the addressing instruction format
constituent fields mode for each is used
operand
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+
Instruction Length
Most basic design issue
Affects, and is affected by:
Memory size
Memory organization
Bus structure
Processor complexity
Processor speed
Should be equal to the memory-transfer length or one should be a
multiple of the other
Should be a multiple of the character length, which is usually 8 bits,
and of the length of fixed-point numbers
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Allocation of Bits
Number of Register
Number of
addressing versus
operands
modes memory
Number of Address Address
register sets range granularity
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+
Variable-Length Instructions
Variations can be provided efficiently and compactly
Increases the complexity of the processor
Does not remove the desirability of making all of the instruction
lengths integrally related to word length
Because the processor does not know the length of the next instruction to
be fetched a typical strategy is to fetch a number of bytes or words equal to
at least the longest possible instruction
Sometimes multiple instructions are fetched
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.
Assembly Language
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+ Summary Instruction Sets:
Addressing Modes and
Formats
Chapter 13
Instruction formats
Addressing modes Instruction length
Immediate addressing Allocation of bits
Direct addressing Variable-length instructions
Indirect addressing
Register addressing
Register indirect addressing
Displacement addressing
Stack addressing
Assembly language
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