Network Models

OSI reference Model and TCP/IP Model

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THE OSI MODEL

It was developed by the International Organization for

Standardization (ISO).
It was first introduced in the late 1970s.

It is a model for a computer protocol architecture and

as a framework for developing protocol standards.

An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network

communications is the Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) model.

Comprises of seven layers 2

Note

ISO is the organization;

OSI is the model.

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The principal motivation for the development
of the OSI model

To provide a framework for standardization.

Within the model, one or more protocol standards can be
developed at each layer.
Changes in standards in one layer need not affect already
existing software in another layer.
The design principle of information hiding is used:
-Lower layers are concerned with greater levels of detail; upper
layers are independent of these details.
To dominate computer communications, eventually replacing
proprietary protocol implementations and rival multivendor
models such as TCP/IP.
-this is no happened. Instead, the TCP/IP architecture has come to
dominate.
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 Advantages of OSI
• Network communication is broken into smaller,
more manageable parts.
• Allows different types of network hardware and
software to communicate with each other.
• All layers are independent and changes does not
affect other layers.
• Easier to understand network communication.

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 Why layered communication?
• To reduce complexity of communication task by
splitting it into several layered small tasks
• assists in protocol design
• fosters competition
• changes in one layer do not affect other layers
• provides a common language

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OSI layers

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Summary of OSI Layers

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 LAYER 7: APPLICATION

• The application layer is responsible for providing

services to the user
• Closest to the user and provides user interface
• Establishes the availability of intended
communication partners
• Examples of Application layer protocols are: Telnet,
SMTP, FTP, SNMP

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 LAYER 6: PRESENTATION

• Presentation layer is concerned with the syntax

and semantics of the information exchanged
between two systems
• This layer is primarily responsible for the
translation, encryption and compression of data
• Defines coding and conversion functions
• This layer also manages security issues by
providing services such as data encryption and
data compression
• Examples of these formats and schemes are:
MPEG, QuickTime, ASCII, EBCDIC, GIF, TIFF, JPEG
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 LAYER 5: SESSION
• The session layer defines how to start, control and end
conversations (called sessions) between applications
• Establishes dialog control between the two computers
in a session, regulating which side transmits, plus when
and how long it transmits (Full duplex)
• Synchronization: Allows processes to add check points.
E.g. Insert check point at every 100 page of 2000 page
file to ensure that each 100-page unit is received &
acknowledged
• Transmits Data

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 LAYER 4: TRANSPORT
• It regulates information flow to ensure process-to- process connectivity
between host applications reliably and accurately
• Adds service point address or Port address
• Segmentation & Re-assembly: SEGMENTS data from sending node and
reassembles data on receiving node
• Flow control / Error control at Source to destination level
• Connection oriented transport service ensures that data is delivered error
free, in sequence with no losses or duplications
• Establishes, maintains and terminates virtual circuits

• Connection oriented / Connectionless:

-TCP (Reliable, provides guaranteed delivery),
-UDP (Unreliable, less overhead, reliability can be provided by
the Application layer)
• Provides multiplexing: the support of different flows of data to different
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applications on the same host
 LAYER 3: NETWORK

• Defines source to destination delivery of packets across

NWs
• Defines logical addressing and best path
determination.
• Treat each packet independently
• Defines how routing works and how routes are learned
• Converts frames to packets
• Routed protocols ( encapsulate data into packets) and
Routing protocols (create routing tables) work on this
layer
• Examples of Routed protocols are: IP, IPX, AppleTalk
and Routing protocols are OSPF, IGRP/EIGRP, RIP, BGP
• Routers operate at Layer 3. 13
 LAYER 2: DATA LINK

• Packages raw bits from the physical layer into FRAMES

• The data link layer provides reliable transit of data across a
physical link by using the Media Access Control (MAC)
addresses
– Source & Destination ( address of device that connects one
Network to next) address
• Flow Control: Prevent overwhelming of Receiving Node
• Error Control: Through Trailer
• Access Control: Which device to have control
• Data Link LAN specifications: Fast Ethernet, Token Ring,
FDDI .
• Data Link WAN specifications are: Frame Relay, PPP, X.25.
• Bridges and Switches operate at this layer 14
 Sub layers of Layer 2
• Logical link layer (LLC)
– Used for communication with upper layers
– Error correction
– Flow control
• Media Access Control (MAC)
– Access to physical medium
– Header and trailer
Trailer: The trailer typically includes a frame check sequence
(FCS), which is used to perform error detection.

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 Layer 2 Frames

Frames include information about:

• Which computers are in communication with
each other
• When communication between individual
computers begins and when it ends
• Which errors occurred while the computers
communicated (LLC)

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 Layer 1: Physical Layer
• Physical Layer
– Define physical characteristics of network. E.g. wires,
connector, voltages, data rates, Asynchronous,
Synchronous Transmission
– Handles bit stream or binary transmission
– Used to maintain, activate and deactivate physical link.
– For receiver it reassembles bits and send to upper
layer for frames.
– For Sender it convert frames
into bit stream and send on
transmission medium. 17
 Properties Physical Layers
• Deals with bit stream.
• Transmits raw bit stream over physical cable
• defines cables, cards, and physical aspects
• defines NIC attachments to hardware, how
cable is attached to NIC
• defines techniques to transfer bit stream to
cable
• Layer 1 Device: Repeater, Hub, Multiplexer
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 Physical layer
physical
connection

Transporting bits from one end node to the next

- type of the transmission media (twisted-pair, coax, optical fiber, air)
- bit representation (voltage levels of logical values)
- data rate (speed)
- synchronization of bits (time synchronization)

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 Difference between Layer 1 and Layer 2

• Layer 1 cannot communicate with upper layers

• Layer 2 does this using LLC

• Layer 1 cannot identify computer

• Layer 2 uses addressing process

• Layer 1 can only describe stream of bits

• Layer 2 uses framing to organize bits
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 Data Encapsulation
• Data Encapsulation is the process of adding a
header to wrap/envelop the data that flows down
the OSI model.
• The 5 Steps of Data Encapsulation are:
1. The Application, Presentation and Session layers create
DATA from users' input.
2. The Transport layer converts the DATA to SEGMENTS
3. The NW layer converts the Segments to Packets
(datagram)
4. The Data Link layer converts the PACKETS to FRAMES
5. The Physical layer converts the FRAMES to BITS.
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TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
By IETF: The Internet Engineering Task Force/DoD

The TCP/IP protocol suite was developed prior to the

OSI model.
Therefore, the layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not
match exactly with those in the OSI model.

The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as four

software layers built upon the hardware.

Today, however, TCP/IP is thought of as a five-layer

model with the layers named similarly to the ones in the
OSI model. 22
Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite

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 The key features of a protocol
In the context of data networking, a protocol is a
formal set of rules and conventions that governs
how computers exchange information over a
network medium.
The peer layers communicate by means of
formatted blocks of data that obey a set of rules or
conventions known as a protocol. The key features
of protocol are:
• Syntax – data block format
• Semantics - control info. & error handling
• Timing - speed matching & sequencing 24
 OSI and TCP/IP similarities

Similarities include:
• Both have layers.
• Both have application layers, though they include very different
services.
• Both have comparable transport and network layers.
• Both assume packets are switched. This means that individual
packets may take different paths to reach the same
destination. This is contrasted with circuit-switched networks
where all the packets take the same path.
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 OSI and TCP/IP Differences
Differences include:
• TCP/IP combines the presentation and session layer issues into its
application layer.
• TCP/IP combines the OSI data link and physical layers into the
network access layer.
• TCP/IP appears simpler because it has fewer layers.

• TCP/IP protocols are the standards around which the Internet developed,
so the TCP/IP model gains credibility just because of its protocols.
• In contrast, networks are not usually built on the OSI protocol, even
though the OSI model is used as a guide.
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TCP/IP: Process/application layer
• These processes integrate the various activities
and duties spanning the focus of the OSI’s
corresponding top three layers (Application,
Presentation, and Session).
• Controls user-interface specifications.
• A vast array of protocols join forces at the DoD
model’s Process/Application layer.

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TCP/IP: Host-to-Host/Transport layer
• The Host-to-Host layer parallels the functions of
the OSI’s Transport layer, defining protocols for
setting up the level of transmission service for
applications.
• It tackles issues like creating reliable end-to-end
communication and ensuring the error-free
delivery of data.
• It handles packet sequencing and maintains data
integrity.
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 TCP/IP: INTERNET LAYER
• The Internet layer corresponds to the OSI’s
Network layer, designating the protocols
relating to the logical transmission of packets
over the entire network.
• It takes care of the addressing of hosts by
giving them an IP (Internet Protocol) address
and handles the routing of packets among
multiple networks.

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 TCP/IP: NETWORK ACCESS LAYER
• At the bottom of the DoD model, the Network
Access layer implements the data exchange
between the host and the network.
• The equivalent of the Data Link and Physical
layers of the OSI model, the Network Access layer
oversees hardware addressing and defines
protocols for the physical transmission of data.
• The reason TCP/IP became so popular is because
there were no set physical layer specifications, so
it could run on any existing or future physical
network!
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Some TCP/IP Protocols

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 Some of application layer
protocols and their functions

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 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
• Governs the transmission of mail messages and
attachments
• SMTP is used in the case of outgoing messages
• More powerful protocols such as POP3 and
IMAP4 are needed and available to manage
incoming messages
• POP3(Post Office Protocol version 3) is the older
protocol
• IMAP4(Internet Mail Access Protocol version 4)
is the more advanced protocol
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Telnet:
• It allows a user on a remote client machine, called
the Telnet client, to access the resources of another
machine, the Telnet server, in order to access a
command-line interface.

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 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

• File Transfer Protocol (FTP)actually lets us transfer

files, and it can accomplish this between any two
machines using it.

• But accessing a host through FTP is only the first step.

• Users must then be subjected to an authentication
login that’s usually secured with passwords and
usernames implemented by system administrators to
restrict access.
• FTP’s functions are limited to listing and manipulating
directories, typing file contents, and copying files
between hosts.
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 Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP)
• Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP)is the stripped-
down, stock version of FTP, but it’s the protocol of
choice if you know exactly what you want and
where to find it because it’s fast and so easy to use!
• But TFTP doesn’t offer the abundance of functions
that FTP does because it has no directory-browsing
abilities, meaning that it can only send and receive
files

• There’s no authentication as with FTP, so it’s even

more insecure, and few sites support it because of
the inherent security risks. 40
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 Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)

• Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) collects and

manipulates valuable network information.
• It gathers data by polling the devices on the network from
a network management station (NMS) at fixed or random
intervals, requiring them to disclose certain information,
or even asking for certain information from the device.
• In addition, network devices can inform the NMS station
about problems as they occur so the network
administrator is alerted.
• This protocol can also stand as a watchdog over the
network, quickly notifying managers of any sudden turn of
events.
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 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
• It’s used to manage communications between web browsers and
web servers and opens the right resource when you click a link,
wherever that resource may actually reside.

• In order for a browser to display a web page, it must find the exact
server that has the right web page, plus the exact details that
identify the information requested.

• Your browser can understand what you need when you enter a
Uniform Resource Locator (URL), which we usually refer to as a web
address, e.g. http://www.lammle.com/forum and
http://www.lammle.com/blog.

• So basically, each URL defines the protocol used to transfer data,

the name of the server, and the particular web page on that server.
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 Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS)

• Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS)is also

known as Secure Hypertext Transfer Protocol. It
uses Secure Sockets Layer (SSL).
• Sometimes you’ll see it referred to as SHTTP or S-
HTTP, which were slightly different protocols, but
since Microsoft supported HTTPS, it became the de
facto standard for securing web communication.
• But no matter—as indicated, it’s a secure version of
HTTP that arms you with a whole bunch of security
tools for keeping transactions between a web
browser and a server secure.
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 Domain Name Service (DNS)
• Domain Name Service (DNS)resolves hostnames—
specifically, Internet names, such as www.wcu.edu.et
• But you don’t have to actually use DNS. You just type
in the IP address of any device you want to
communicate with and find the IP address of a URL
by using the Ping program.

For example, >ping www.cisco.com will return the IP

address resolved by DNS.

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 Domain Name System (DNS)

Resolves domain names to IP addresses and vice versa

www.wcu.edu.et 10.198.7.2
DNS Server

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 DNS cont’d…
• An IP address identifies hosts on a network
and the Internet as well, but DNS was
designed to make our lives easier.
• The IP address would change and no one
would know what the new one was.
• DNS allows you to use a domain name to
specify an IP address.

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 DNS cont’d…
• The very last section of the domain is called its top-
level domain (TLD) name

Top-level domains, including some relatively new ones 15-50

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Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)

• Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)assigns

IP addresses to hosts dynamically.
• It allows for easier administration and works well in
small to very large network environments.
• Many types of hardware can be used as a DHCP
server, including a Cisco router.
• A DHCP address conflict occurs when two hosts use
the same IP address. This sounds bad, and it is!

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A lot of information a DHCP server can provide to
a host when the host is requesting an IP address
from the DHCP server.
Here’s a list of the most common types of
information a DHCP server can provide:
 IP address
 Subnet mask
 Domain name
 Default gateway (routers)
 DNS server address
 WINS server address
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This is the four-step process a client takes to receive
an IP address from a DHCP server:
1. The DHCP client broadcasts a DHCP Discover
message looking for a DHCP server (Port 67).
2. The DHCP server that received the DHCP Discover
message sends a layer 2 unicast DHCP Offer
message back to the host.
3. The client then broadcasts to the server a DHCP
Request message asking for the offered IP address
and possibly other information.
4. The server finalizes the exchange with a unicast
DHCP Acknowledgment message.
Etc…. 55
Some of Transport layer protocols
and their functions

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 TCP(Transmission Control Protocol)
TCP: takes large blocks of information from an
application and breaks them into segments.
It numbers and sequences each segment to keep the
order the application intended.
After these segments are sent on the transmitting host,
TCP waits for an acknowledgment of the receiving end’s.
Retransmitting any segments that aren’t acknowledged.
It is Connection oriented means that a virtual
connection is established before any user data is
transferred.
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 TCP cont’d..
 TCP can also recognize duplicate messages and
will discard them appropriately.
 If the sending computer is transmitting too fast
for the receiving computer, TCP can employ
flow control mechanisms to slow data transfer.
TCP can also communicates delivery information
to the upper-layer protocols and applications it
supports.
All these characteristics makes TCP an end-to-
end reliable transport protocol.
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TCP CONNECTION ESTABLISHMENT

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 TCP SEGMENT FORMAT
Below figure demonstrate how TCP segments a data
stream and prepares it for the Internet layer. When the
Internet layer receives the data stream, it routes the
segments as packets through an internetwork.

15-60
 Some of fields in TCP segment
• Source port : This is the port number of the
application on the host sending the data.
• Destination port: This is the port number of the
application requested on the destination host.
• Sequence number: A number used by TCP that
puts the data back in the correct order or
retransmits missing or damaged data during a
process called sequencing.
• Acknowledgment number: The value is the TCP
octet that is expected next.
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 Cont’d…

• Header length: The number of 32-bit words in the TCP header,

which indicates where the data begins.
• Reserved: for future use, Always set to zero.
• Code bits/flags: Controls functions used to set up and terminate a
session.
-it used to determine segment purpose, e.g. SYN, ACK
• Window: is window size the sender willing to accept, in octets.
• Checksum: The cyclic redundancy check (CRC), used because TCP
doesn’t trust the lower layers and checks everything.
The CRC checks the header and data fields

-TCP keeps check that if bytes are damaged, through checksum.

Etc….
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 User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP)is basically the scaled-down
economy model of TCP, which is why UDP is sometimes
referred to as a thin protocol.
• Like a thin person , a thin protocol doesn’t take up a lot of
room—or in this case, require much bandwidth on a
network.
• UDP does not sequence the segments and does not care
about the order in which the segments arrive at the
destination.
• UDP just sends the segments off and forgets about them.
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 UDP cont’d…

• It doesn’t follow segments, check up on them, or

even allow for an acknowledgment of safe arrival.
Because of this, it’s referred to as an unreliable
protocol.
• This does not mean that UDP is ineffective, only
that it doesn’t deal with reliability issues at all.
• Furthermore, UDP doesn’t create a virtual circuit or
doesn’t contact the destination before delivering
information to it.
- Because of this, it’s also considered a connectionless
protocol.
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 UDP cont’d…
NOTE:
Since UDP assumes that the application will use its
own reliability method, it doesn’t use any itself.
This presents an application developer with a
choice when running the Internet Protocol stack:
TCP for reliability or UDP for faster transfers.
TCP sequences the segments so they get put back
together in exactly the right order, which is
something UDP just can’t do.
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 UDP in short
• Minimum overhead.
• Used to send short messages.
• Not reliable as TCP (out of order, missing datagram, duplicate
datagram).
• Lack of flow control and error control
• Faster and efficient
• Communication takes place using ports.
• Header contains following information:
– Source port number (16 bits)
– Destination port number (16 bits)
– Total length(16 bits)
– checksum(16 bits)

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Some of Internet or Network layer protocols
and their functions

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Internet Protocol (IP) (Layer 3 protocol)
– Used for data communication in packet switched
network
– Unreliable and connectionless (no specific path)
– Unreliable
• Data corruption
• Packet lost
• Out of order
– Packet called Datagram
– internetworking computers
– Internet Protocol versions: IPv4, IPv6
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 IPv4
• Internet protocol version 4
• Uses 32 bit address.
• Possible addresses 2^32 = 4,294,967,296 (4.3 billion)
• Some addresses are reserved like private addresses plus multicast
addresses.
• Private addresses (LANs):
– 10.0.0.0 – 10.255.255.255
– 172.16.0.0 – 172.31.255.255
– 192.168.0.0 – 192.168.255.255
– Total reserved private addresses = 18 Million
• Multicast addresses:
– 224.0.0.0 – 239.255.255.255
– Total multicast addresses = 270 million
• Available addresses = possible addresses – (private addresses+
multicast addresses)

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 IP Addresses - Class A
• 32 bit global internet address
• Network part and host part
• Class A
– Start with binary 0
– All 0 reserved
– 01111111 (127) reserved for loopback
– Range 1.x.x.x to 126.x.x.x
– All allocated

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 IP Addresses - Class B
• Start 10
• Range 128.x.x.x to 191.x.x.x
• Second Octet also included in network address
• 214 = 16,384 class B addresses
• All allocated

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 IP Addresses - Class C
• Start 110
• Range 192.x.x.x to 223.x.x.x
• Second and third octet also part of network
address
• 221 = 2,097,152 addresses
• Nearly all allocated
– See IPv6

NOTE: READ MORE ABOUT SUBNETTING 75

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 Subnet Mask Conversions
Prefix Subnet Mask Prefix
Subnet Mask
Length Length

/1 128.0.0.0 /17 255.255.128.0

/2 192.0.0.0 /18 255.255.192.0
/3 224.0.0.0 /19 255.255.224.0
/4 240.0.0.0 Decimal Octet Binary Number
/20 255.255.240.0
/5 248.0.0.0 /21 255.255.248.0
/6 252.0.0.0 /22 255.255.252.0 128 1000 0000
/7 254.0.0.0 /23 255.255.254.0 192 1100 0000
/8 255.0.0.0 /24 255.255.255.0 224 1110 0000
/9 255.128.0.0 /25 255.255.255.128 240 1111 0000
/10 255.192.0.0 /26 255.255.255.192 248 1111 1000
/11 255.224.0.0 /27 255.255.255.224 252 1111 1100
/12 255.240.0.0 /28 255.255.255.240 254 1111 1110
/13 255.248.0.0 /29 255.255.255.248 255 1111 1111
/14 255.252.0.0 /30 255.255.255.252
/15 255.254.0.0 /31 255.255.255.254
/16 255.255.0.0 /32 255.255.255.255

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 IPv6
• Increase in number of addresses
• 128 bits long address
• Represented in hexadecimal.
• Possible addresses 2^128
• 2^96 more address than IPv4
• ARP, RARP, IGMP are deleted or merged into
ICMPv6 protocol.

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 IP datagram format (cont.)
• Vers (4 bits): version of IP protocol (IPv4=4)
• Hlen (4 bits): Header length in 32 bit words, without options
(usual case) = 20
• Type of Service – TOS (8 bits): little used in past, now being
used for QoS
• Total length (16 bits): length of datagram in bytes, includes
header and data
• Time to live – TTL (8bits): specifies how long datagram is
allowed to remain in internet
– Routers decrement by 1
– When TTL = 0 router discards datagram
– Prevents infinite loops
• Protocol (8 bits): specifies the format of the data area
– Protocol numbers administered by central authority to guarantee
agreement, e.g. TCP=6, UDP=17 … 80
 Cont’d…
• Source & destination IP address (32 bits each):
contain IP address of sender and intended
recipient.
• Options (variable length): Mainly used to record a
route, or timestamps, or specify routing.
• Identification: copied into fragment, allows destination
to know which fragments belong to which datagram
• Fragment Offset (12 bits): specifies the offset in the
original datagram of the data being carried in the
fragment
– Measured in units of 8 bytes starting at 0
• Flags (3 bits): control fragmentation
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 ARP Protocol (layer 3)
• Stands for address resolution protocol
• Finding physical address from logical address
• Host or router transmit IP datagram packet
containing logical address obtained from DNS.
• Query is broadcast but reply is uncast.
• Request contains sender and receiver IP plus
sender physical address.
• Reply contains physical address.
• Proxy ARP. (router sends its physical address)

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 Cont’d…
• ARP is used in four cases of two hosts communicating:
– When two hosts are on the same network and one desires to
send a packet to the other. (same network)
– When two hosts are on different networks and must use a
gateway/router to reach the other host (internet)
– When a router needs to forward a packet for one host through
another router. (internet)
– When a router needs to forward a packet from one host to the
destination host on the same network. (internet)
Reverse of ARP=RARP
• Finding logical address from physical address
• Request broadcast to network.
• Based on Client server protocol. 83
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 ICMP (Layer 3)
• Used to report errors with delivery of IP data.
• E.g. if particular service or host not reachable or to
check routers are correctly routing .
• Ping tool uses ICMP to check host is reachable and how
long it takes to reach.
• ICMP message is delivered in IP packet.
• Error reporting not error correction.
• Two types of messages
– Error reporting message
• Problems with router or host e.g. destination unreachable, time
exceeded, parameters problem
– Query message
• Help in getting specific information. e.g. neighbors 85
 ICMP Errors
• Network Errors:
– Host or network unreachable
– Network congestion message:
• When router buffers too many packets, and don’t process
with same speed as received, generates source quench
message. Too many messages results congestion.
– Time exceed
• ICMP timeout message is generated when host is
unreachable.
• If errors in routing table, packets travel in loop. At each
router value is decremented by 1.
• When TTL value reaches to 0, packet discarded with ICMP
error.
• TTL value is default 86
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 IGMP Layer 3
• Internet group management protocol
• Protocol involved in multicasting.
• Protocol that manages group membership.
• Provides information to multicast routers about
the membership status of hosts.
• Router receives thousand of multicast packets, if
destination unreachable broadcast packets.
Increases traffic load.
• IGMP help router in providing this information.
-Agent maintains, edit membership and provide
information of group.
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 IGMP (contd….)
• IGMP has following messages
– Query
• Request for information of hosts
– Joining report
• If one process in group sends membership report.
– Leaving report
• When no other processes in company

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 Routing Protocols

Routing protocols use metrics to evaluate what path will

be the best for a packet to travel.
A metric is a standard of measurement, such as path
bandwidth, that is used by routing algorithms to determine
the optimal path to a destination
Dynamic Routing Protocols
There are 3 types of Dynamic routing protocols, these differ
mainly in the way that they discover and make
calculations about routes:
1) Distance Vector
2) Link State
3) Hybrid
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Distance Vector routers compute the best
path from information passed to them from
neighbors
Link State routers each have a copy of the
entire network map
-Link State routers compute best routes from
this local map.
-Link-state algorithms (also known as shortest
path first algorithms) flood routing
information to all nodes in the internetwork.
Hybrid routers: combines distance vector and
link state 91
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Reading assignment:
Study in detail how dynamic routing protocol
works???

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