ECE131

BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

UNIT-5
Fundamentals of Filters and Operational
Amplifier
Lecture-32/33/34
Teacher-Dr. Krishan Kumar, Professor, SCSE
 Unit 5
Fundamentals of filters and operational amplifier :
filter examples- band-pass filter, low-pass filter, high-
pass filter, operational amplifier abstraction- device
properties of the operational amplifier, simple op amp
circuits – virtual ground concept, inverting and non-
inverting op-amp, op-amp as an adder and subtractor,
op-amp RC circuits – op-amp integrator, op-amp
differentiator, op-amp as a comparator and its
application in anti-lock braking systems
 Introduction
• Operational Amplifiers are represented both
schematically and realistically below:
– Active component!
 Operational Amplifers

Operational amplifiers (op-amps) are very high gain dc coupled

amplifiers with differential inputs. One of the inputs is called
+V
the inverting input (-); the other is called the noninverting
input. Usually there is a single output.
–

Most op-amps operate from plus and minus supply +

voltages, which may or may not be shown on the
schematic symbol. –V

8
20 1 1
8 8
1 1
DIP DIP SMT SMT
 Why are they useful?

• Sensor signals are often too weak or too noisy

– Op Amps ideally increase the signal amplitude
without affecting its other properties
Operational Amplifier
• Output gain high
– A ~= 106
• Tiny difference in the input
voltages result in a very
large output voltage
– Output limited by supply
voltages
• Comparator
– If V+>V-, Vout = HVS
– If V+<V-, Vout = LVS
– If V+=V-, Vout = 0V
 Ideal Op Amp

• Zin is infinite
• Zout is zero
• Amplification (Gain) Vout / Vin = ∞
• Unlimited bandwidth
• Vout = 0 when Voltage inputs = 0
 Ideal Op Amp
Ideal Op-Amp Typical Op-Amp

Input Resistance infinity 106  (bipolar)

109  - 1012  (FET)

Input Current 0 10-12 – 10-8 A

Output Resistance 0 100 – 1000 

Operational Gain infinity 105 - 109

Common Mode Gain 0 10-5

Bandwidth infinity Attenuates and phases at high

frequencies (depends on slew rate)

Temperature independent Bandwidth and gain

 How are Op-Amps used?

• Comparator (seen earlier)

• Voltage follower (seen earlier)
• Signal Modulation
• Mathematical Operations
• Filters
• Voltage-Current signal conversion
 Summary

Negative Feedback

Negative feedback is the process of returning a portion of the output signal to

the input with a phase angle that opposes the input signal.

The advantage of negative

feedback is that precise Vin +
Vout
values of amplifier gain can
be set. In addition, Vf –
bandwidth and input and Internal inversion makes Vf
output impedances can be 180° out of phase with Vin.

controlled. Negative
feedback
circuit
 Poll
The name of OP AMP used because of Mathematical
Operations just like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, differentiation and integration.
A True
B False
 Solution
Answer: True
 Poll
• Operational Amplifier consists of the
following features  ______________.
• Very High Gain
• Very High Input Impedance
• Very Low Output Impedance
• all are correct
 solution
Answer: d
 What is Virtual Ground ?
As the name indicates it is virtual, not real ground. For
some purposes we can consider it as equivalent to
ground. In op-amps the term virtual ground means
that the voltage at that particular node is almost
equal to ground voltage (0V). It is not physically
connected to ground. This concept is very useful in
analysis of op-amp circuits and it will make a lot of
calculations very simple.
 Using Infinite Voltage Gain
We already know that an ideal op-amp will provide infinite voltage gain.
For real op-amps also the gain will be very high such that we can
consider it as infinite for calculation purposes.
 Summary

Noninverting Amplifier

A noninverting amplifier is a configuration in which the signal is on the

noninverting input and a portion of the output is returned to the inverting
input.
+
Feedback forces Vf to be
Vout
equal to Vin, hence Vin is
Vin –
across Ri. With basic Rf
algebra, you can show that Vf Feedback
the closed-loop gain of the circuit
noninverting amplifier is Ri
Rf
Acl (NI)  1 
Ri
Non-inverting Op-Amp

Uses: Amplify…straight up
 Summary

Noninverting Amplifier

Determine the gain of the noninverting amplifier shown.

Vin +
Rf Vout
Acl (NI)  1  –
Ri Rf
82 kW
82 k
 1
3.3 k Ri
3.3 kW
= 35.8
 Summary

Noninverting Amplifier

A special case of the inverting amplifier is when Rf =0 and Ri = ∞. This forms a

voltage follower or unity gain buffer with a gain of 1.

Vin ++
The input impedance of Vout
out
the voltage follower is – Rf
very high, producing an 82 kW

excellent circuit for

Ri
isolating one circuit from 3.3 kW
another, which avoids
"loading" effects.
 Summary
Inverting Amplifier

An inverting amplifier is a configuration in which the noninverting input is

grounded and the signal is applied through a resistor to the inverting input.
Feedback forces the inputs to
be nearly identical; hence the
inverting input is very close to Rf
0 V. The closed-loop gain of
the inverting amplifier is
Rf Ri
Acl (I)   –
Ri
Vout
Vin +

0 V (virtual ground)
Inverting Op-Amp

                                             

                         

Uses: Analog inverter

 Summary

Inverting Amplifier

Determine the gain of the inverting amplifier shown.

Rf

Rf 82 kW
Acl (I)  
Ri Ri
–
82 k 3.3 kW
Vout

3.3 k Vin +

= -24.8

The minus sign

indicates inversion.
 POLL
Op-Amp is originated from ________ computers.
1. Analog
2. Digital
3. Both a and b
4. None of the above
 SOLUTION
Analog
 POLL
Op-Amp performs ________ operations.
1. Arithmetic
2. Logical
3. Alphanumeric
4. Both a and b
 SOLUTION
Both a and b
 POLL
Op-Amp performs which type of mathematical type
operations.
1. Linear
2. Non-linear
3. Frequency-dependent
4. All the above
 SOLUTION
4 All the above
 POLL
Op-Amp with positive input type configuration is
represented as _______.
1. +V
2. -V
3. V
4. Both a and c
 SOLUTION
1. +V
 Op-Amp Buffer
Vout = Vin
Isolates loading effects

The voltage follower or unity gain buffer circuit is commonly used to isolate different
circuits, i.e. to separate one stage of circuit from another and also used in impedance
matching applications.
In practice, the output voltage of a voltage follower will not be exactly equal to the
input voltage applied and there will be a slight difference. This difference is due to the
high internal voltage gain of the op-amp.

A B

High output Low input

impedance impedance
Op-Amp Differentiator
Differentiator
 Op-Amp Differentiator
• Reactance, XC is connected to the input terminal of the inverting
amplifier while the resistor, Rƒ forms the negative feedback
element across the operational amplifier as normal.
• This operational amplifier circuit performs the mathematical
operation of Differentiation, that is it “produces a voltage output
which is directly proportional to the input voltage’s rate-of-change
with respect to time“.
• In other words the faster or larger the change to the input voltage
signal, the greater the input current, the greater will be the output
voltage change in response, becoming more of a “spike” in shape.
 WORKING
• The input signal to the differentiator is applied to the capacitor.
The capacitor blocks any DC content so there is no current flow
to the amplifier summing point, X resulting in zero output
voltage. The capacitor only allows AC type input voltage changes
to pass through and whose frequency is dependant on the rate
of change of the input signal.
• At low frequencies the reactance of the capacitor is “High”
resulting in a low gain ( Rƒ/Xc ) and low output voltage from the
op-amp. At higher frequencies the reactance of the capacitor is
much lower resulting in a higher gain and higher output voltage
from the differentiator amplifier.
 Advantage/Disadventages
at high frequencies an op-amp differentiator circuit
becomes unstable and will start to oscillate. This is due
mainly to the first-order effect, which determines the
frequency response of the op-amp circuit causing a
second-order response which, at high frequencies gives an
output voltage far higher than what would be expected.
To avoid this the high frequency gain of the circuit needs to
be reduced by adding an additional small value capacitor
across the feedback resistor Rƒ.
Op-amp Differentiator circuit in its basic form has two
main disadvantages.
One is that it suffers from instability at high
frequencies as mentioned above, and the other is that
the capacitive input makes it very susceptible to
random noise signals and any noise or harmonics
present in the source circuit will be amplified more
than the input signal itself.
This is because the output is proportional to the slope
of the input voltage so some means of limiting the
bandwidth in order to achieve closed-loop stability is
required.
 External video

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YZsup_LoMu8
Therefore, the output voltage Vout is a constant –Rƒ*C times the derivative of the input
voltage Vin with respect to time. The minus sign (–) indicates a 180o phase shift because the
input signal is connected to the inverting input terminal of the operational amplifier.
 Example
 if the input signal is a ramp, then the output of the circuit with an Operational
Amplifier as Differentiator will be simple DC (as the rate of change of ramp signal
is constant).
Applications
The differentiators are used in FM
modulator as a rate of change detector.
One of the major applications of op-amp
differentiator is wave shaping circuits. This
can be used in the detection of high-
frequency components in the input signal.
These Op-Amp differentiators are normally
designed for performing an operation on
rectangular and triangular signals.
 Research Scope
• Improved Op-amp Differentiator Amplifier
The basic single resistor and single capacitor op-amp differentiator circuit is not
widely used to reform the mathematical function of Differentiation because of
the two inherent faults mentioned above, “Instability” and “Noise”. So in order
to reduce the overall closed-loop gain of the circuit at high frequencies, an extra
resistor, Rin is added to the input as shown below.

Adding the input resistor RIN limits the differentiators increase in gain at a ratio of
Rƒ/RIN The circuit now acts like a differentiator amplifier at low frequencies and an
amplifier with resistive feedback at high frequencies giving much better noise
rejection.
Additional attenuation of higher frequencies is accomplished by connecting a
capacitor Cƒ in parallel with the differentiator feedback resistor, Rƒ. This then forms
the basis of a Active High Pass Filter as we have seen before in the filters section.
 Op-amp Integrator
Op-amp Integrator is an operational
amplifier circuit that performs the
mathematical operation of Integration,
that is we can cause the output to respond
to changes in the input voltage over time
as the op-amp integrator produces an
output voltage which is proportional to the
integral of the input voltage.
The integrator circuit outputs the
integral of the input signal over a
frequency range based on the circuit
time constant and the bandwidth of
the amplifier.
The input signal is applied to the
inverting input so the output is
inverted relative to the polarity of the
input signal.
Op-Amp Integrator
 WORKING
When a step voltage, Vin is firstly applied to the input of an integrating
amplifier, the uncharged capacitor C has very little resistance and acts
a bit like a short circuit allowing maximum current to flow via the input
resistor, Rin as potential difference exists between the two plates. No
current flows into the amplifiers input and point X is a virtual earth
resulting in zero output. As the impedance of the capacitor at this
point is very low, the gain ratio of XC/RIN is also very small giving an
overall voltage gain of less than one, ( voltage follower circuit ).
As the feedback capacitor, C begins to charge up due to the influence
of the input voltage, its impedance Xc slowly increase in proportion
to its rate of charge. The capacitor charges up at a rate determined by
the RC time constant, ( τ ) of the series RC network. Negative
feedback forces the op-amp to produce an output voltage that
maintains a virtual earth at the op-amp’s inverting input.
 Main Function
Op-amp integrating circuits are basically inverting
amplifiers, with appropriately placed capacitors.
Integrator circuits are usually designed to produce a
triangular wave output from a square wave input.
Integrating circuits have frequency limitations while
operating on sine wave input signals.
 Integrator

Virtual ground
 WORKING
Since the capacitor is connected between the op-amp’s inverting input (which
is at virtual ground potential) and the op-amp’s output (which is now negative),
the potential voltage, Vc developed across the capacitor slowly increases causing
the charging current to decrease as the impedance of the capacitor increases.
This results in the ratio of Xc/Rin increasing producing a linearly increasing ramp
output voltage that continues to increase until the capacitor is fully charged.
At this point the capacitor acts as an open circuit, blocking any more flow of
DC current. The ratio of feedback capacitor to input resistor ( XC/RIN ) is now
infinite resulting in infinite gain.
The result of this high gain (similar to the op-amps open-loop gain),
is that the output of the amplifier goes into saturation as shown on
next slide. (Saturation occurs when the output voltage of the
amplifier swings heavily to one voltage supply rail or the other with
little or no control in between).
 OUTPUT

The rate at which the output voltage increases (the rate of change) is
determined by the value of the resistor and the capacitor, “RC time
constant“. By changing this RC time constant value, either by changing
the value of the Capacitor, C or the Resistor, R, the time in which it takes
the output voltage to reach saturation can also be changed
 Simulation
https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=jvxQKVdTVgY&t=55
s
 Integrator
vS (t )  v1 vS (t )
iR  
R R
dvC
iC  C
dt
vC (t )  v1  vo (t )  vo (t )
iR  iC  0mA
vS (t ) d  vo (t )
C 0
R dt
dvo (t ) vS (t )
 0
dt RC
t2
1
vo (t 2 )  
RC t1
vS (t )dt  vo (t1 )
 EXAMPLE
A current integrator is an electronic device performing
a time integration of an electric current, thus
measuring a total electric charge. A charge amplifier is
an example of current integrator.
 Applications
Op-amp integrating amplifiers are used to perform
calculus operations in analogue computers.
Integrating circuits are most commonly used in
analogue-to-digital converters, ramp generators
and also in wave shaping applications.
 POLL
1. Differentiation amplifier produces
a) Output waveform as integration of input waveform
b) Input waveform as integration of output waveform
c) Output waveform as derivative of input waveform
d) Input waveform as derivative of output waveform
 SOLUTION
Answer: c
Explanation: Differentiation amplifier or differentiator
is a circuit that performs mathematical operation of
differentiation and produce output waveform as a
derivative of input waveform.
 POLL
Determine the output voltage of the
differentiator?
a) VO = RF×C1×[dVin/dt].
b) VO = -RF×C1×[dVin/dt].
c) VO = RF×CF×[dVin/dt].
d) None of the mentioned
 SOLTION
Answer: b
Explanation: The output voltage is equal to the RF×C1
times the negative instantaneous rate of change of
the input voltage Vin with time.
 POLL
which factor makes the differentiator circuit
unstable?
a) Output impedance
b) Input voltage
c) Noise
d) Gain
 SOLUTION

Answer: d
Explanation: The gain of the differentiator circuit (RF /
XC1) increases with increase in frequency at a rate of
20dB/decade. This makes the circuit unstable.
 POLL
The increase in the input frequency of the
differentiation amplifier to input impedance creates
a) Component noise
b) External noise
c) Low frequency noise
d) High frequency noise
 SOLUTION

Answer: d
Explanation: The input impedance of the amplifier
decreases with increase in frequency and make the
circuit susceptible to high frequency noise such that
noise can completely over ride differential output.
Op-Amp Summing Amplifier
 External video
https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=2R0qtQl8AAo
 Example
• Find the output voltage of the following Summing Amplifier circuit.

Gain of the circuit:

We can now substitute the values of the resistors in the circuit as

follows:

We know that the output voltage is the sum of the two

amplified input signals and is calculated as:

Then the output voltage of the Summing Amplifier circuit above is given as -45 mV and is negative as its an inverting amplifier.
 APPLICATIONS
APPLICATIONS OF SUMMING AMPLIFIERS
• It can be used to add the signals.
• It is used in an audio mixer to add different signals
with equal gains.
• Many resistors are used in the input of the summing
amplifier it could be used to change a binary
number to a voltage in an AC.
 POLL
3v, 5v and 7v are the three input voltage applied to the inverting input terminal of averaging
amplifier. Determine the output voltage?
a) -5v
b) -10v
c) -15v
d) -20v
 Solution
Answer: a
Explanation: The output voltage, Vo = -[(Va+Vb+Vc)/3] = -[(3+5+7)/3] =-5v.
 POLL
In which amplifier the output voltage is equal to the negative sum of all the inputs?
a) Averaging amplifier
b) Summing amplifier
c) Scaling amplifier
d) All of the mentioned
 SOLUTION
Answer: b
Explanation: In summing amplifier the output voltage is equal to the sum of all input. Since the
total input is a sum of negative input, the amplifier is an inverting summing amplifier.
 POLL

Determine the common mode output

voltage .Given CMRR=65db

a) 2.81mV
b) 281.17mV
c) 28.11mV
d) 0.281mV
 SOLUTION
Answer: B
Explanation: AD= RF/ R1 = 30kΩ/3kΩ = 10.
WKT, CMRR =( AD* VCM)/ VOCM= 20logCMRR = 65db = 10(65/20) = 1778.28
=> Common mode output voltage, VOCM= ( AD* VCM)/CMRR = (10*5mV)/1778.28= 281.17mV.
Questions/Answer
Thanks