External Flow

CV 222/MM 222 – Fluid Mechanics
External Flows
Lecture By : Deepak Prasad

Learning Outcomes
Upon completion of this chapter you should be able
to:
Calculate lift and drag acting on an airfoil
Explain how an airfoil generates lift
Differentiate between pressure drag and skin friction drag
External Flow
External flows past objects encompass an extremely wide variety of
fluid mechanics phenomena.
Clearly, the character of the flow field is a function of the shape of the
body.
External Flow
External Flow
For a given shaped object, the characteristics of the flow depend very
strongly on various parameters such as:
Size
Orientation
Speed
Fluid properties
External Flow
Orientation
External Flow
Speed
External Flow
Boundary Layer
When a fluid flows around an object or when the object moves through
a fluid, there exists a thin layer of fluid close to the solid surface.
In this thin layer, shear stresses significantly influence the velocity
distribution.
The fluid velocity varies from zero at the solid surface to the velocity of
free-stream flow away from the solid surface.
This thin layer of decelerated fluid is called boundary layer.
Boundary Layer
 Due to viscosity, the fluid is decelerated close to the solid surface, and immediately
at the surface, the flow velocity is zero (no-slip condition).
 The distance from the flat plate to a point at which the flow velocity is 99% of the
free-stream velocity (Uo) is called the boundary layer thickness (δ), as shown in the
figure.
Reynolds Number (Re)
One of most important dimensionless numbers in fluid mechanics
Reynolds number is ratio of two forces:
Inertial Forces
Viscous Forces
 ρ is the density
 V is the velocity
 l is the characteristic length
c
 µ is the dynamic viscosity
 v is the kinematic viscosity
Laminar flow if Re < 3 x 105

Turbulent flow if Re > 5 x 105
Boundary Layer
The thickness of boundary layer for incompressible, laminar flow over a flat
plate, at a distance x from the leading edge is
The thickness of boundary layer for incompressible, turbulent flow over a flat
plate, at a distance x from the leading edge is
Velocity Profile
The velocity in the turbulent boundary layer is "fuller" and has more
energy.
Velocity distributions in laminar and turbulent boundary layers

Question 1
The wing of a general aviation aircraft is rectangular, with a chord length
of 1.6 m. The aircraft is flying at a speed of 50 m/s under sea-level
conditions. Calculate the boundary layer thickness at:
a) a distance of 7.5 cm from the leading edge

b) the trailing edge of the wing.
Use air density as 1.225 kg/m3 and dynamic viscosity as 1.802 x 10-5
kg/m.s
Question 1
1.6 m
7.5 cm
What is an Airfoil?
Consider a wing of an airplane as shown in Fig. 1. The wing extends in
the y-direction (the span direction).
Figure 1. Airfoil section

The freestream V∞ is parallel to the xz plane. Any section of the wing
cut by a plane parallel to the xz plane is called an airfoil.
Applications of Wings/Airfoils
Figure 2. Aeroplanes.
Figure 3. Wind turbine.

Applications of Wings/Airfoils
Figure 4. Racing cars. Figure 5. Production cars.

What Causes Aerodynamics Forces?
Forces acting on the airfoil/wing comes from 2 sources:
Pressure distribution (P) over the body surface. (P)
 Acts normal to the surface.
Figure 7. Pressure distribution.
Shear stress (t) distribution over the body surface.

 Acts tangential to the surface.
Figure 8. Shear stress distribution.

Resolving the Aerodynamics Forces?
V∞ = free-stream velocity
α = angle of attack and is defined as the angle between chord line (c) and V∞
Total aerodynamic force, R, can be resolved
into two force components
Lift, L: Component of R perpendicular

to free-stream velocity
Drag, D: Component of R parallel
to free-stream velocity
Figure 9. Resultant aerodynamics forces.

Lift and Drag Force
The unit for lift and drag is Newtons, N.
A = Planform Area [A= C × b (b is the span)]

ρ = is the density
CL is the coefficient of lift (Dimensionless)
CD is the coefficient of drag (Dimensionless)
V∞ is the free-stream velocity
L/D is the lift to drag ratio
Forces Acting on a Plane During Flight
During a horizontal flight
Lift = weight
Thrust = Drag
Power generated as the plane moves
forward is
Figure 10. Forces acting on a plane.

Question 2
The wing of a small airplane is rectangular in plan having a span of 9 m
and chord length of 1.5 m. In a horizontal flight at 200 km/hr, the
aerodynamic lift force acting on the wing is 20 kN. If the lift-to-drag ratio
is 10, make calculations for
a) the lift and drag coefficients, and

b) power required for the flight.
Take density of air as 1.2 kg/m3.

Question 2
Question 2
Question 3
A small airplane has a mass of 1800 kg and a wing area of
42 m2. Determine the lift and drag coefficients of this
airplane while cruising at an altitude of 4000 m at a
constant speed of 280 km/hr and generating 190 kW of
power.
Take density of air as 0.819 kg/m3.

How Does an Airfoil Generate Lift?
Bernoulli’s Principle
Figure 11. Velocity streamline. Figure 12. Pressure contour.

Lift Characteristics
Figure 13. Pressure contour at α = 0°. Figure 14. Pressure contour at α = 10°.
Figure 15. Pressure coefficient
 With increasing α: at different α.
 Suction on the upper surface increase.
 This causes the lift to increase.
 The drag also increases as α increases
Lift Characteristics
The lift increases with increasing α.
Lift or Lift Coefficient
It reaches a maximum and then

starts to drop.
 This is known as stalling which is
Stalling
caused by flow separation.
 The drag increases significantly after
stall.
Angle of Attack, a
Figure 16. Lift characteristics at different α.
Friction and Pressure Drag
The drag force is the net force exerted by a fluid on
a body in the direction of the flow due to the
combined effects of wall shear and pressure forces.
Drag is the resistance to motion.
Total Drag = Pressure Drag + Friction Drag

Which one will experience greater drag?
A B
Pressure Drag (Form Drag)
Pressure Drag (FD_Pressure) is that part of the drag that is due directly to
the pressure on an object.
Pressure drag is a function of:
magnitude of pressure
orientation
Skin Friction Drag
Friction Drag (FD_Friction) is that part of the drag that is due directly to the
shear stress on the object.
It is function of:
magnitude of the wall shear stress
orientation
viscosity, and increases with increasing viscosity.
Type of Drag and body
Friction Drag
Streamline body
Pressure Drag
Bluff body
Type of Drag and body
Velocity
Drag on Vehicles
Drag on Vehicles
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E9ZSAX56m0E
Question 4
During a high Reynolds number experiment, the total drag acting
on a spherical body of diameter 12 cm subjected to flow at 1 atm and
5°C is measured to be 5.2 N. The pressure drag acting on the body
was calculated to be 4.9 N using pressure sensors. Determine the
friction drag coefficient of the sphere.
For turbulent flow over a sphere (Re ≥ 2 × 106), the CD = 0.2

Use air density as 1.269 kg/m3 and dynamic viscosity as 1.75 x 10-5
kg/m.s
Question 5
The drag coefficient of a car at the design conditions
of 1 atm, 25°C, and 90 km/hr is to be determined
experimentally in a large wind tunnel in a full-scale
test. The height and width of the car are 1.40 m and
1.65 m respectively. If the horizontal force acting on
the car is measured to be 300 N, determine the total
drag coefficient of this car.
Parallel flow over flat plates
For parallel flow over a flat plate, the pressure drag is zero
and thus the drag coefficient is equal to the friction drag
coefficient or simply the friction coefficient.
Once the average friction coefficient is available, the drag (or
friction) force over the surface can be determined from
Parallel flow over flat plates
The average friction coefficient is given by
Laminar Flow Turbulent Flow
For some cases, plate is long enough so that the flow

becomes turbulent after a region of laminar flow.
where L is the length of the plate and

Question 6
Hot engine oil at 40°C flows over a 4 m long flat
plate with a free-stream velocity of 3 m/s. determine
the drag force acting on the plate.
Density = 876 kg/m3

Kinematic viscosity = 2.485 × 10-4 m2/s
Question 6
Question 7
The top surface of the passenger car of a train is
moving at a velocity of 70 km/h is 3.2 m wide and 8 m
long. If the outdoor air is at 1 atm and 25°C, determine
the drag force acting on the top surface of the car.

Air density = 1.184 kg/m3
Dynamic viscosity = 1.849 × 10-5 kg/m.s
Effect of Pressure Gradient on a Flow
Upstream of the highest point, the streamlines of the outer flow
converge, resulting in a increase of U(x) and a decrease in pressure.
Downstream of the highest point the streamlines diverge, resulting in a
decrease of U(x) and a rise in pressure.
If pressure falls along the

direction of flow, dp/dx < 0
"favorable“ PG
 If the pressure rises along the
direction of flow, dp/dx > 0
"adverse" PG.
Flow Separation
Under a strong APG, the flow next to the wall reverses direction,
resulting in a region of backward flow, as shown in the figure. The
reversed flow meets the forward flow at some point A at which the
fluid near the surface is transported out into the mainstream. We say
that the flow separates from the wall
Flow Separation
Evidence indicates that the point of separation is insensitive to the
Reynolds number as long as the boundary layer is laminar.
However, a transition to turbulence delays boundary layer separation;
that is, a turbulent boundary layer is more capable of withstanding an
adverse pressure gradient.
This is because the velocity profile in a turbulent boundary layer is "fuller"
and has more energy.
Flow Separation
How strong an adverse pressure gradient the boundary layer can
withstand without undergoing separation depends on the geometry of
the flow, and whether the boundary layer is laminar or turbulent?
A steep pressure gradient, such as that behind a blunt body, invariably
leads to a quick separation.
In contrast, the boundary layer on the trailing surface of a thin body
can overcome the weak pressure gradients involved.
Therefore, to avoid separation and large drag, the trailing section of a
submerged body should be gradually reduced in size, giving it a so-
called streamlined shape.
Examples

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CV 222/MM 222 – Fluid Mechanics

Lecture By : Deepak Prasad

Laminar flow if Re < 3 x 105

Velocity distributions in laminar and turbulent boundary layers

a) a distance of 7.5 cm from the leading edge

Figure 1. Airfoil section

Figure 3. Wind turbine.

Figure 4. Racing cars. Figure 5. Production cars.

Figure 7. Pressure distribution.

Shear stress (t) distribution over the body surface.

Figure 8. Shear stress distribution.

Lift, L: Component of R perpendicular

Figure 9. Resultant aerodynamics forces.

The unit for lift and drag is Newtons, N.

A = Planform Area [A= C × b (b is the span)]

Figure 10. Forces acting on a plane.

a) the lift and drag coefficients, and

Take density of air as 1.2 kg/m3.

Take density of air as 0.819 kg/m3.

Figure 11. Velocity streamline. Figure 12. Pressure contour.

It reaches a maximum and then

Total Drag = Pressure Drag + Friction Drag

For turbulent flow over a sphere (Re ≥ 2 × 106), the CD = 0.2

Laminar Flow Turbulent Flow

For some cases, plate is long enough so that the flow

where L is the length of the plate and

Density = 876 kg/m3

If pressure falls along the

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