LESSON 3:

QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS AND

POLYNOMIALS OF HIGHER DEGREE
 Expected Learning Outcomes
1. Analyze graphs of quadratic functions.
2. Write quadratic functions in standard form and
use the results to sketch graphs of functions.
3. Find minimum and maximum values of
quadratic
functions in real-life applications.
4. Use transformations to sketch graphs of
polynomial functions

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 Expected Learning Outcomes
5. Use the Leading Coefficient Test to determine
the end behavior of graphs of polynomial
functions.
6. Find and use zeros of polynomial functions as
sketching aids.
7. Use the Intermediate Value Theorem to help
locate zeros of polynomial functions.

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The Graph of a Quadratic Function
In this section, you will study the graphs of polynomial
functions. You have been introduced to the following basic
functions.

f (x) = ax + b Linear function

f (x) = c Constant function

f (x) = x2 Squaring function

These functions are examples of polynomial functions.

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The Graph of a Quadratic Function

Polynomial functions are classified by degree. For instance,

a constant function f (x) = c with c  0 has degree 0, and a
linear function f (x) = ax + b with a  0 has degree 1.

In this section, you will study second-degree polynomial

functions, which are called quadratic functions.
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The Graph of a Quadratic Function
For instance, each of the following functions is a quadratic
function.
f (x) = x2 + 6x + 2
g(x) = 2(x + 1)2 – 3
h(x) = 9 + x2
k(x) = –3x2 + 4
m(x) = (x – 2)(x + 1)

Note that the squaring function is a simple quadratic

function that has degree 2.

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The Graph of a Quadratic Function

The graph of a quadratic function is a special type of

“U”-shaped curve called a parabola. Parabolas occur in
many real-life applications—especially those involving
reflective properties of satellite dishes and flashlight
reflectors. 7
The Graph of a Quadratic Function
All parabolas are symmetric with respect to a line called the
axis of symmetry, or simply the axis of the parabola.

The point where the axis intersects the parabola is the

vertex of the parabola, as shown in Figure 3.1.

Leading coefficient is positive. Leading coefficient is negative.

Figure 3.1
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The Graph of a Quadratic Function
If the leading coefficient is positive, the graph of

f (x) = ax2 + bx + c

is a parabola that opens upward. If the leading coefficient is

negative, the graph of

f (x) = ax2 + bx + c

is a parabola that opens downward.

The simplest type of quadratic function is

f (x) = ax2. 9
The Graph of a Quadratic Function
Its graph is a parabola whose vertex is (0, 0). If a > 0, the
vertex is the point with the minimum y-value on the graph,
and if a < 0, the vertex is the point with the maximum
y-value on the graph, as shown in Figure 3.2.

Leading coefficient is positive. Leading coefficient is negative.

Figure 3.2
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The Graph of a Quadratic Function
When sketching the graph of f (x) = ax2, it is helpful to use
the graph of y = x2 as a reference.

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Example 1 – Sketching Graphs of Quadratic Functions

a. Compare the graphs of y = x2 and f (x) = x2.

b. Compare the graphs of y = x2 and g(x) = 2x2.

Solution:
a. Compared with y = x2, each
output of f (x) = x2 “shrinks”
by a factor of , creating the
broader parabola shown in
Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3
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 Example 1 – Solution cont’d

b. Compared with y = x2, each output of g(x) = 2x2

“stretches” by a factor of 2, creating the narrower
parabola shown in Figure 3.4.

Figure 3.4

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The Graph of a Quadratic Function
In Example 1, note that the coefficient a determines how
widely the parabola given by f (x) = ax2 opens.

If | a | is small, the parabola opens more widely than if | a | is

large.

Recall that the graphs of y = f (x ± c), y = f (x) ± c, y = f (–x),

and y = –f (x) are rigid transformations of the graph of
y = f (x).

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The Graph of a Quadratic Function
For instance, in Figure 3.5, notice how the graph of y = x2
can be transformed to produce the graphs of f (x) = –x2 + 1
and g(x) = (x + 2)2 – 3.

Reflection in x-axis followed by Left shift of two units followed by

an upward shift of one unit a downward shift of three units
Figure 3.5
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The Standard Form of a Quadratic Function

The standard form of a quadratic function is

f (x) = a(x – h)2 + k. This form is especially convenient for
sketching a parabola because it identifies the vertex of the
parabola as (h, k).

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The Standard Form of a Quadratic Function

To graph a parabola, it is helpful to begin by writing the

quadratic function in standard form using the process of
completing the square, as illustrated in Example 2.

In this example, notice that when completing the square,

you add and subtract the square of half the coefficient of x
within the parentheses instead of adding the value to each
side of the equation.

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Example 2 – Graphing a Parabola in Standard Form

Sketch the graph of f (x) = 2x2 + 8x + 7 and identify the

vertex and the axis of the parabola.

Solution:
Begin by writing the quadratic function in standard form.
Notice that the first step in completing the square is to
factor out any coefficient of x2 that is not 1.

f (x) = 2x2 + 8x + 7 Write original function.

= 2(x2 + 4x) + 7 Factor 2 out of x-terms.

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 Example 2 – Solution cont’d

= 2(x2 + 4x + 4 – 4) + 7 Add and subtract 4 within parentheses.

After adding and subtracting 4 within the parentheses, you

must now regroup the terms to form a perfect square
trinomial.

The –4 can be removed from inside the parentheses;

however, because of the 2 outside of the parentheses, you
must multiply –4 by 2, as shown below.

f (x) = 2(x2 + 4x + 4) – 2(4) + 7 Regroup terms.

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 Example 2 – Solution cont’d

= 2(x2 + 4x + 4) – 8 + 7 Simplify.

= 2(x + 2)2 – 1 Write in standard form.

From this form, you can see that the graph of f is a

parabola that opens upward and has its vertex at (–2, –1).

This corresponds to a left shift

of two units and a downward
shift of one unit relative to the
graph of y = 2x2, as shown in
Figure 3.6.

Figure 3.6 20
 Example 2 – Solution cont’d

In the figure, you can see that the axis of the parabola is
the vertical line through the vertex, x = –2.

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The Standard Form of a Quadratic Function

To find the x-intercepts of the graph of f (x) = ax2 + bx + c,

you must solve the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0.

If ax2 + bx + c does not factor, you can use the Quadratic

Formula to find the x-intercepts.

Remember, however, that a parabola may not have

x-intercepts.

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Finding Minimum and Maximum Values

Many applications involve finding the maximum or minimum

value of a quadratic function.

By completing the square of the quadratic function

f (x) = ax2 + bx + c, you can rewrite the function in
standard form

Standard form

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Finding Minimum and Maximum Values

So, the vertex of the graph of f is , which

implies the following.

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Example 5 – The Maximum Height of a Baseball

A baseball is hit at a point 3 feet above the ground at a

velocity of 100 feet per second and at an angle of 45 with
respect to the ground.
The path of the baseball is given by the function f (x) = –
0.0032x2 + x + 3, where f (x) is the height of the baseball (in
feet) and x is the horizontal distance from home plate (in
feet).
What is the maximum height reached by the baseball?

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 Example 5 – Solution
For this quadratic function, you have
f (x) = ax2 + bx + c
= –0.0032x2 + x + 3
which implies that a = –0.0032 and b = 1.
Because a < 0, the function has a maximum when
x = –b/(2a). So, you can conclude that the baseball reaches
its maximum height when it is x feet from home plate,
where x is

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 Example 5 – Solution cont’d

= 156.25 feet.

At this distance, the maximum height is

f (156.25) = –0.0032(156.25)2 + 156.25 + 3

= 81.125 feet.

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 Graphs of Polynomial Functions
In this section, you will study basic features of the graphs of
polynomial functions. The first feature is that the graph of a
polynomial function is continuous.

Essentially, this means that the

graph of a polynomial function
has no breaks, holes, or gaps,
as shown in Figure 3.11(a).
Polynomial functions have
continuous graphs.
Figure 3.11(a)

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 Graphs of Polynomial Functions
The graph shown in Figure 3.11(b) is an example of a
piecewise defined function that is not continuous.

Functions with graphs that are not

continuous are not polynomial functions.
Figure 3.11(b)

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 Graphs of Polynomial Functions
The second feature is that the graph of a polynomial
function has only smooth, rounded turns, as shown in
Figure 3.12.

Polynomial functions have graphs

with smooth, rounded turns.
Figure 3.12

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 Graphs of Polynomial Functions
A polynomial function cannot have a sharp turn.

For instance, the function given

by f (x) = | x |, which has a sharp
turn at the point (0, 0), as shown
in Figure 3.13, is not a polynomial
function.
Graphs of polynomial functions
The graphs of polynomial functions cannot have sharp turns.

of degree greater than 2 are more Figure 3.13

difficult to analyze than the graphs

of polynomials of degree 0, 1, or 2.
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 Graphs of Polynomial Functions
However, using the features presented in this section,
coupled with your knowledge of point plotting, intercepts,
and symmetry, you should be able to make reasonably
accurate sketches by hand.

The polynomial functions that have the simplest graphs are

monomials of the form f (x) = xn, where n is an integer
greater than zero.

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 Graphs of Polynomial Functions
From Figure 3.14, you can see that when n is even, the
graph is similar to the graph of f (x) = x2, and when n is odd,
the graph is similar to the graph of f (x) = x3.

If n is even, the graph of y = xn If n is odd, the graph of y = xn

touches the axis at the x-intercept. crosses the axis at the x-intercept.
(a) (b)

Figure 3.14
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 Graphs of Polynomial Functions
Moreover, the greater the value of n, the flatter the graph
near the origin. Polynomial functions of the form f (x) = xn
are often referred to as power functions.

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Example 1 – Sketching Transformations of Polynomial Functions

Sketch the graph of each function.

a. f (x) = –x5 b. h (x) = (x + 1)4

Solution:
a. Because the degree of f (x) = –x5
is odd, its graph is similar to the
graph of y = x3.

In Figure 3.15, note that the

negative coefficient has the
effect of reflecting the graph Figure 3.15
in the x-axis.
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 Example 1 – Solution cont’d

b. The graph of h(x) = (x + 1)4, as shown in Figure 3.16, is

a left shift by one unit of the graph of y = x4.

Figure 3.16

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 The Leading Coefficient Test
In Example 1, note that both graphs eventually rise or fall
without bound as x moves to the right.

Whether the graph of a polynomial function eventually rises

or falls can be determined by the function’s degree (even or
odd) and by its leading coefficient, as indicated in the
Leading Coefficient Test.

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The Leading Coefficient Test

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The Leading Coefficient Test cont’d

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Example 2 – Applying the Leading Coefficient Test

Describe the right-hand and left-hand behavior of the graph

of each function.

a. f (x) = –x3 + 4x

b. f (x) = x4 – 5x2 + 4

c. f (x) = x5 – x

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 Example 2(a) – Solution
Because the degree is odd and the leading coefficient is
negative, the graph rises to the left and falls to the right, as
shown in Figure 3.17.

Figure 3.17
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 Example 2(b) – Solution cont’d

Because the degree is even and the leading coefficient is

positive, the graph rises to the left and right, as shown in
Figure 3.18.

Figure 3.18

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 Example 2(c) – Solution cont’d

Because the degree is odd and the leading coefficient is

positive, the graph falls to the left and rises to the right, as
shown in Figure 3.19.

Figure 3.19

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 The Leading Coefficient Test
In Example 2, note that the Leading Coefficient Test tells
you only whether the graph eventually rises or falls to the
right or left.

Other characteristics of the graph, such as intercepts and

minimum and maximum points, must be determined by
other tests.

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 Zeros of Polynomial Functions
It can be shown that for a polynomial function f of degree n,
the following statements are true.

1. The function f has, at most, n real zeros.

2. The graph of f has, at most, n – 1 turning points. (Turning

points, also called relative minima or relative maxima,
are points at which the graph changes from increasing to
decreasing or vice versa.)

Finding the zeros of polynomial functions is one of the most

important problems in algebra.

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 Zeros of Polynomial Functions
There is a strong interplay between graphical and algebraic
approaches to this problem.

Sometimes you can use information about the graph of a

function to help find its zeros, and in other cases you can
use information about the zeros of a function to help sketch
its graph.

Finding zeros of polynomial functions is closely related to

factoring and finding x-intercepts.

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Zeros of Polynomial Functions

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Example 3 – Finding the Zeros of a Polynomial Function

Find all real zeros of

f (x) = –2x4 + 2x2.
Then determine the number of turning points of the graph
of the function.

Solution:
To find the real zeros of the function, set f (x) equal to zero
and solve for x.

–2x4 + 2x2 = 0 Set f (x) equal to 0.

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Example 3 – Solution cont’d

–2x2(x2 – 1) = 0 Remove common monomial factor.

–2x2(x – 1)(x + 1) = 0 Factor completely.

So, the real zeros are x = 0, x = 1, and x = –1.

Because the function is a fourth-degree polynomial, the

graph of f can have at most 4 – 1 = 3 turning points.

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Zeros of Polynomial Functions
In Example 3, note that because the exponent is greater
than 1, the factor –2x2 yields the repeated zero x = 0.

Because the exponent is even, the graph touches the

x-axis at x = 0, as shown in Figure 3.20.

Figure 3.20
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 Zeros of Polynomial Functions

A polynomial function is written in standard form if its

terms are written in descending order of exponents from
left to right.

Before applying the Leading Coefficient Test to a

polynomial function, it is a good idea to check that the
polynomial function is written in standard form. 51
 The Intermediate Value Theorem
The next theorem, called the Intermediate Value
Theorem, illustrates the existence of real zeros of
polynomial functions.

This theorem implies that if (a, f (a))

and (b, f (b)) are two points on the
graph of a polynomial function such
that f (a)  f (b),
then for any number
d between f (a) and f (b) there must
Figure 3.25
be a number c between a and b such
that f (c) = d. (See Figure 3.25.) 52
 The Intermediate Value Theorem

The Intermediate Value Theorem helps you locate the real

zeros of a polynomial function in the following way.

If you can find a value x = a at which a polynomial function is

positive, and another value x = b at which it is negative,
you can conclude that the function has at least one real zero
between these two values.
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 The Intermediate Value Theorem
For example, the function given by f (x) = x3 + x2 + 1 is
negative when x = –2 and positive when x = –1.

Therefore, it follows from the

Intermediate Value Theorem
that f must have a real zero
somewhere between –2 and –1,
as shown in Figure 3.26.
Figure 3.26

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 The Intermediate Value Theorem

By continuing this line of reasoning, you can approximate

any real zeros of a polynomial function to any desired
accuracy.

This concept is further demonstrated in Example 6.

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Example 6 – Approximating a Zero of a Polynomial Function

Use the Intermediate Value Theorem to approximate the

real zero of
f (x) = x3 – x2 + 1.

Solution:
Begin by computing a few function values, as follows.

56
Example 6 – Solution cont’d

Because f (–1) is negative and f (0) is positive, you can

apply the Intermediate Value Theorem
to conclude that the function has a zero between –1 and 0.

To pinpoint this zero more closely, divide the interval [–1, 0]

into tenths and evaluate the function at each point. When
you do this, you will find that

f (–0.8) = –0.152 and f (–0.7) = 0.167.

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 Example 6 – Solution cont’d

So, f must have a zero between – 0.8 and – 0.7, as shown in

Figure 3.27.

For a more accurate approximation,

compute function values between
f (–0.8) and f (–0.7) and apply the
Intermediate Value Theorem again.

By continuing this process, you can

approximate this zero to any desired Figure 3.27

accuracy.

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 Challenge Problems !
Share to our FB group solution/s of at least one
problem not later than 12 noon today.

1. Describe the graph of the function f(x) = x² -2x -15.

2. Write g(x) = x² + 3x – 8 in standard form and use the
result to graph g(x).
3. Use transformations to graph h(x) = x² - x =13.
4. Use the leading coefficient test to describe the behaviour
of the graph of f(x) = (x+4)³ -2.
5. Use the Intermediate Value Theorem to locate the zeros
of the polynomial functions g(x) = x³ -2x² +3 and use
the zeros as sketching aids.
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