TRANSFORMING DATA INTO

INFORMATION
HOW COMPUTER REPRESENT DATA

• BINARY NUMBERS
COMPUTER PROCESSING IS PERFORMED BY TRANSISTORS,
WHICH ARE SWITCHES WITH ONLY TWO POSSIBLE STATES: ON
AND OFFF
ALL COMPUTER DATA IS COVERTED TO A SERIES OF BINARY
NUMBERS 1 AND 0, FOR EXAMPLE, YOU SEE SENTENCE AS
COLLECTION OF LETTERS, BUT THE COMPUTER SEE EACH LETTER
AS A COLLECTION OF 1 AND 0
IF A TRANSISTOR IS ASSIGED A VALUE OF 1, IT IS ON. IF IT HAS
VALUE OF 0, IT IS OFFF..A COMPUTER TRASISTOR CAN BE
SWITCHES ON AND OFF MILLIONS OF TIMES EACH SECOND .
THE BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM
• TO CONVERT DATA INTO STRINGS OF NUMBERS. COMPUTERS USE THE BINARY NUMBERS
SYSTEM
• HUMANS USE THE DECIMAL SYSTEM (“DECI” STAND FOR TEN)
• THE BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM WORKS THE SAME WAY AS THE DECIMAL SYSTEM, BUT
HAS ONLY TWO AVAILABLE SYMBOLS (0 AND 1) RATHER THAN TEN (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 AND 9)

DECIM 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
AL
BINARY 0 01 10 11 100 101 110 111 1000 1001
HOW COMPUTERS REPRESENT DATA

• BITS AND BYTES

• A SINGLE UNIT OF DATA IS CALLED A BIT, HAVING A
VALUE OF 1 OR 0
• COMPUTERS WORK WITH COLLECTIOS OF BITS,
GROUPING THEM TO REPRESENT LAGRGR PIECES OF
DATA, SUCH AS LETTERS OF THE ALPHABET.
• EIGTH BITS MAKE UP ONE BYTE. A BYTE IS THE
AMOUNT OF MEMORY NEEDED TO STORE ONE
ALPHANUMERIC CHARACTER.
• WITH ONE BYTE, THE COMPUTER CAN REPRESENT ONE
OF THE 265 DIFFERENT SYMBOLS OF CHARACTERS.
 HOW COMPUTERS REPRESENT DATA
• TEXT CODE
• A TEXT CODE IS A SYSTEM THAT USESS BINARY NUMBERS (1 AND 0s) TO REPRESENT
CHARACTERS UNDERSTOOD BY HUMAN (LETTERS AND NUMBERS)
• AN EARLY TEXT CODE SYSTEM, CALLED EBCDIC, USES EIGTH- BIT CODES. BUT IS USED
PRIMARILY IN OLDER MAINFRAME SYSTEMS.
• IN THE MOST COMMON TEXT-CODE SET, ASC||, EAH CHARACTER CONSIST OF EIGHT BIT (CODE
BYTE) OF DATA. AS|| IS USED IN NEARLY ALL PERSONAL COMPUTER
• IN THE UNICODE TEXT CODE SET, EACH CHARACTER CONSIST OF 16 BITS (TWO BTYES) OF DATA

CODE 0011001 00110010 00110011 0100001 001000010 01000011

CHARACTER 1 2 3 A B C
HOW COMPUTERS PROCESS DATA
• WHERE PROCESSING OCCURS
• PROCESSING TAKESS PLACE IN THE PC CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU).
• THE SYSTEM’S MEMORY ALSO PLAYS A CRUCIAL ROLE IN PROCESSING
DATA.
• BOTH THE CPU AND MEMORY ARE ATTACHED TO THE SYSTEMS’S
MOTHERBOARD, WHICH CONNECTS ALL THE COMPUTERS DEVICES
TOGETHER, ENEBLING THEM TO COMMUNICATED.
THE CONTROL

• THE TWO MAIN PARTS OF A CPU ARE THE CONTROL UNIT AND THE
ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT (ALU) OTHER DEVICES.
• THE CONTROL UNIT STORES THE CPU’S MICROCODE, WHICH
CONTAINS THE INTRUCTIONS FOR ALL THE TASK THE CPU CAN
PERFORM.
THE ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT
• THE ACTUAL MANIPULATION OF THE DATA TAKES IN THE ALU
• THE ALU CAN PERFORM ARITHMETIC AND LOGIC OPERATION.
• THE ALU IS CONNECTED TO A SET OF REGESTER- SMALL MEMORY AREAS IN THE CPU, WHICH
HOLD DATA AND PROGRAM INTRUCTION WHILE THE ARE BEING PROCESSED.

MACHINE
CYCLE
THE CPU FOLLOWS A SET OF STEP- CALLED A
MACHINE CYCLE FOR A EACH INSTRUCTION IT
CARRIES OUT
BY USING A TECHNIQUE CALLED PIPELING, MANY
CPUs CAN PROCESS MORE THAN ONE INSTRUCTION.
THE MACHINE CYCLE INCLUDES TWO
SMALLER CYCLE
• DURING THE INSTRUCTION CYLE, THE CPU “FETCHES” A
COMMAND OR DATA FROM MEMORY AND “DECODES” IT FOR THE
CPU
• DURING THE EXECUTION, THE CPU CARRIES OUT THE
INSTRUCTION, AND MAY STORE THE INSTRUCTION’S RESULT IN
MEMORY.
THE ROLE OF MEMORY
• RAM STORES DATA AND PROGRAM CODE NEEDED BY THE CPU.
THE CONTENTS OF RAM CHANGE RAPIDLY AND OFTEN.
• READ – ONLY MEMORY (ROM) IS NONVOLATILE (OR
PERMANENT). IT HOLDS INSTRUCTION THAT RUN THE
COMPUTER WHEN THE POWER IS FIRST TURNED ON.
• THE CPU ACCESSES EACH LOCATION IN MEMORY BY USING A
UNIQUE NUMBER, CALLED THE MEMORY ADDRESS
 FACTORS AFFECTING PROCESSING SPEED
• REGESTERS
• THE CPU CONTAINS A NUMBERS OF
SMALL MEMORY AREAS, CALLED
REGESTERS, WHICH STORE DATA AND
INSTRUCTIONS WHILE THE CPU
PROCESSES THEM.
• THE SIZE OF THE REGISTER (ALSO
CALLED WORD SIZE) DETERMINES THE
AMOUNT OF THE DATA WITH WHICH
THE COMPUTER CAN WORK AT A ONE
TIME
• TODAY, PCs HAVE 64-BIT REGESTES,
MEANS THE CPU CAN PROCESS FOUR
BYTE OF DATA AT ONE TIME.
REGESTERS SIZE ARE RAPIDLY
 RAM
• THE AMOUNT OF RAM IN PC HAS A DIRECT AFFECT
ON THE SYSTEM’S SPEED
• THE MORE RAM A PC HAS, THE MORE PROGRAM
INSTRUCTION AND DATA CAN BE HELD IN
MEMORY, WHICH IS FASTER THAN STORAGE ON
DISK.
• IF A PC DOES NOT HAVE ENOUGH MEMORY TO RUN
A PROGRAM, IT MUST MOCE DATA BETWEEN RAM
AND THE HARD DISK FREQUENTLY. THIS PROCESS,
CALLED SWAPPING, CAN GREATLY SLOW A PC’S
PERFORMANCE.
 THE SYSTEM CLOCK
• THE COMPUTER’S SYSTEM CLOCK SET THE
PACE FOR THE CPU BY USING A VIBRATING
QUARTZ CRYSTAL.
• A SINGLE “TICK” OF THE CLOCK IS THE TIME
REQUIRED TO TURN A TRANSISTOR OFF AND
BACK ON. THIS IS CALLED A CLOCK CYCLE .
• CLOCK CYCLES ARE MEASURED IN HERTZ
(Hz), A MEASURE OF CYCLES PER SECOND . IF
COMPUTER HAS A CLOCK SPEED OF 300 MHz,
THEN ITS SYSTEM CLOCK “TICKS” 300
MILLION TIMES EVERY SECOND
• THE FASTER THE PC’s CLOCK RUNS, THE
MORE INSTRUCTIONS THE PC CAN EXECUTE
EACH SECOND.
 THE BUS
• A BUS IS A PATH BETWEEN THE COMPONENTS OF THE
COMPUTER. DATA AND INSTRUCTIONS TRAVEL ALONG
THESE PATHS.
• THE DATA BUS’ WIDTH DETEMINES HOW MAY BITS CAN BE
TRASMITTED BETWEEN THE CPU AND OTHER DIVICES.
• THE ADDRESS BUS RUNS ONLY BETWEEN THE CPU AND
RAM . AND CARRIES NOTHING BUT MEMORY ADDRESSES
FOR THE CPU TO USE.
• PERIPHERAL DIVICES ARE CONNECTED TO THE CPU BY AN
EXPANSION BUS
CACHE MEMORY
• CACHE MEMORY IS HIGH –SPEED MEMORY THAT HOLDS
THE MOST RECENT DATA INSTRUCTIONSTHAT HAVE BEEN
LOADED BY THE CPU.
• CACHE IS LOCATED DIRECTLY ON THE CPU OR BETWEEN
THE CPU AND RAM MAKING IT FASTER THAN NORMAL
RAM
• CPU – RESIDENT CACHE IS CALLED LEVEL 1 (L1) CACHE .
EXTERNAL CACHE IS CALLED LEVEL-2 (L2) CACHE.
• THE AMOUNT OF CACHE MEMORY HAS A TREMENDOUS
IMPACT ON THE COMPUTER’S SPEED.
EXTENDING THE PROCESSOR’S POWER TO
OTHER DIVICES

• PORTS
• EXTERNAL DIVICES – SUCH AS THOSE USED FOR INPUT AND
OUTPUT – ARE CONNECTED TO THE SYSTEM BY PORTS ON THE
BACK OF THE COMPUTER.
• PCs FEATURES A NUMBER OF BUILT-IN PORTS, WHICH ARE
READY TO ACCEPT DEVICES SUCH AS A PRINTER, MOUSE,
KEYBOARD, PHONE LINE, MICROPHONE AND SPEAKERS AND
OTHERS.
• MOST COMPUTERS COME WITH A SERIAL PORT. A SERIAL PORT
TRANSMITS ONE BIT OF DATA AT A TIME: A PARALLEL PORT
TRANSMITS DATA ONE BYTE AT A TIME
ADDING OTHER DIVICES

• EXPANSION SLOTS AND BOARDS

• IF THE PC DOES NOT HAVE A PORT FOR AN EXTERNAL DEVICE,
YOU CAN INSTALL AN EXPANSION BOARD INTO ONE OF THE
EMPTY EXPANSION SLOTS.
• A BOARD PROVIDES THE CORRECT PORT FOR THE NEW
DEVICES, AND CONNECTS THE DEVICE TO THE CPU BY OF THE
COMPUTER’S EXPANSION BUS.
• NEWER BUS TECHNOLOGIES SUCH AS UNIVERSAL SERIAL BUS
(USB) AND IEEE 1394 ENABLE MANY DEVICES TO BE
CONNECTED TO ONE PORT.
• SMALL COMPUTER SYSTEM INTERFACE (SCSI) IS AN OLDER
STANDARD FOR EXTENDING THE BUS TO MULTIPLE DEVICES
THROUGH A SINGLE PORT.
THANK YOU