BDA 30703

INTRODUCTION
to
INSTRUMENTATION and MEASUREMENT
 INTRODUCTION
Measurement is the process of determining the
amount, degree or capacity by comparison with the
accepted standards of the system units being used.

Instrumentation is a technology of measurement

which serves sciences, engineering, medicine and
etc.

Instrument is a device for determining the value or

magnitude of a quantity or variable.

Electronic instrument is based on electrical or

electronic principles for its measurement functions.
 ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT
• Basic elements of an electronics instrument
Signal Indicating
Transducer Modifier Device

1) Transducer
- convert a non electrical signal into an electrical signal
2) Signal modifier
- convert input signal into a suitable signal for the indicating
device (e.g amplifier)
3) Indicating device
- indicates the value of quantity being measure (e.g ammeter)
 FUNCTIONS
The 3 basic functions of instrumentation :-
 Indicating – visualize the process/operation

 Recording – observe and save the measurement

reading
 Controlling – to control measurement and process
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
Performance Characteristics -
characteristics that show the performance
of an instrument.
 Eg: accuracy, precision, resolution, sensitivity.
Allows users to select the most suitable
instrument for a specific measuring jobs.
Two basic characteristics :
 Static
 Dynamic
 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
Accuracy – the degree of exactness (closeness) of
measurement compared to the expected (desired) value.
Resolution – the smallest change in a measurement
variable to which an instrument will respond.
Precision – a measure of consistency or repeatability of
measurement, i.e successive reading do not differ.
Expected value – the design value or the most probable
value that expect to obtain.
Error – the deviation of the true value from the desired
value.
Sensitivity – ratio of change in the output (response) of
instrument to a change of input or measured variable.
 ERROR IN MEASUREMENT
Measurement always introduce error
Error may be expressed either as absolute or percentage
of error

Absolute error, e = Y n  X n
where – Yexpected
n
value
X n – measured value

Yn  X n
% error = 100
Yn
 ERROR IN MEASUREMENT

Yn  X n
Relative accuracy, A  1 
Yn
% Accuracy, a = 100% - % error
= A 100

Xn  Xn
Precision, P = 1 
Xn
where X n - value of the nth measurement
- average set of measurement
Xn
 Example 1.1

Given expected voltage value across a resistor is 80V.

The measurement is 79V. Calculate,
i. The absolute error
ii. The % of error
iii. The relative accuracy
iv. The % of accuracy
 Solution (Example 1.1)

Given that , expected value = 80V

measurement value = 79V

i. Absolute error, e = Y  X = 80V – 79V = 1V

n n
ii. % error = Yn  X n = 80  79 = 1.25%
100 100
Yn 80
iii. Relative accuracy, = 0.9875
Yn  X n
A  1
Yn
iv. % accuracy, a = A x 100% = 0.9875 x 100%=98.75%
 Example 1.2
From the value in table 1.1 calculate Table 1.1
the precision of 6th measurement? No Xn

Xn
1 98
2 101
Solution
3 102
4 97
the average of measurement value 5 101
98  101  ....  99 1005 6 100
Xn    100.5 7 103
10 10
the 6th reading 8 98

Precision = 1  100  100 .5  1  0 .5  0 .995 9 106

100 .5 100 .5 10 99
 Significant Figures

Significant figures convey actual information regarding

the magnitude and precision of quantity
More significant figure represent greater precision of
measurement

Example 1.3

Find the precision value of X1 and X2?

X n  101
X 1  98===>> 2 s.f
===>>
X 2  98.5 3 s.f
 Solution (Example 1.3)

X n  101
X 1  98===>> 2 s.f
X 2  98.5===>> 3 s.f

X1  Precision = 1  98  101  0.97

101
98.5  101
X2  Precision1 = ===>more precise
 0.975
101
 Significant Figures (cont)

Rules for significant figures

1) All non-zero digits are significant
2) Zeros between two non-zero digits are significant
3) Leading zeros are not significant
4) Trailing zeros are significant
 Significant Figures (cont)

Example

1) 1, 20 and 300 have 1 significant figures

2) 123.45 has 5 significant figures
3) 1001 has 4 significant figures
4) 100.02 has 5 significant figures
5) 0.00001 has 1 significant figures
6) 1.100 has 4 significant figures
7) 0.00100 has 3 significant figures
 Significant Figures (cont)

Rules regarding significant figures in calculation

1) For adding and subtraction, all figures in columns to the
right of the last column in which all figures are significant
should be dropped

Example 1.4
V1 = 6.31 V
+ V2 = 8.736 V

Therefore VT = 15.046 V
 15.05 V
 Significant Figures (cont)

Example 1.5

3.76 g + 14.83 g + 2.1 g = 20.69 g

2.1 shows the least number of decimal places

We must round our answer, 20.69, to one decimal place.

Therefore, our final answer is 20.7 g.
 Significant Figures (cont)

2) For multiplication and division, retain only as many

significant figures as the least precise quantity contains

Example 1.6

Calculate the value of

22.37 cm x 3.10 cm x 85.75 cm

 Significant Figures (cont)

Example 1.6 (Solution)

22.37 cm x 3.10 cm x 85.75 cm = 5946.50525 cm3

22.37 shows 4 significant figures

3.10 shows 3 significant figures
85.75 shows 4 significant figures

The least number of significant figures is 3

Therefore our final answer becomes 5950 cm3.

 Significant Figures (cont)
3) When dropping non-significant figures

0.0148 ==> 0.015 (2 s.f)

==> 0.01 (1 s.f)
 TYPES OF STATIC ERROR
Types of error in measurement:
1) Gross error/human error
2) Systematic Error
3) Random Error

1) Gross Error
- caused by human mistakes in reading/using instruments
- cannot eliminate but can minimize
 TYPES OF STATIC ERROR (cont)
2) Systematic Error
- due to shortcomings of the instrument (such as
defective or worn parts)
- 3 types of systematic error :-
(i) Instrumental error
(ii) Environmental error
(iii) Observational error
 TYPES OF STATIC ERROR (cont)

(i) Instrumental error

- inherent while measuring instrument because of
their mechanical structure (bearing friction,
irregular spring tension, stretching of spring, etc)
- error can be avoided by:
(a) selecting a suitable instrument for the particular
measurement application
(b) apply correction factor by determining
instrumental error
(c) calibrate the instrument against standard
 TYPES OF STATIC ERROR (cont)
(ii) Environmental error
- due to external condition effecting the
measurement including surrounding area condition
such as change in temperature, humidity,
barometer pressure, etc
- to avoid the error :-
(a) use air conditioner
(b) sealing certain component in the instruments
(c) use magnetic shields
(iii) Observational error
- introduce by the observer
- most common : parallax error and estimation error
(while reading the scale)
 TYPES OF STATIC ERROR (cont)
3) Random error
- due to unknown causes, occur when all systematic
error has accounted
- accumulation of small effect, require at high degree
of accuracy
- can be avoided by
(a) increasing number of reading
(b) use statistical means to obtain best approximation
of true value
Dynamic Characteristics
Dynamic – measuring a varying process condition.
Instruments rarely respond instantaneously to
changes in the measured variables due to such
things as mass, thermal capacitance, fluid
capacitance or electrical capacitance.
The three most common variations in the measured
quantity:
 Step change

 Linear change

 Sinusoidal change
Dynamic Characteristics
The dynamic characteristics of an instrument
are:
 Speed of response
 Dynamic error
 The difference between the true and measured value
with no static error.
 Lag – response delay
 Fidelity – the degree to which an instrument
indicates the changes in the measured variable
without dynamic error (faithful reproduction).
 LIMITING ERROR

The accuracy of measuring instrument is

guaranteed within a certain percentage (%) of
full scale reading
E.g manufacturer may specify the instrument
to be accurate at 2 % with full scale
deflection
For reading less than full scale, the limiting
error increases
 LIMITING ERROR (cont)
Example 1.6

Given a 600 V voltmeter with accuracy 2% full scale.

Calculate limiting error when the instrument is used to
measure a voltage of 250V?

Solution

The magnitude of limiting error, 0.02 x 600 = 12V

Therefore, the limiting error for 250V = 12/250 x 100 = 4.8%
 LIMITING ERROR (cont)

Example 1.7

Given for certain measurement, a limiting error for voltmeter

at 70V is 2.143% and a limiting error for ammeter at 80mA
is 2.813%. Determine the limiting error of the power.

Solution

The limiting error for the power = 2.143% + 2.813%

= 4.956%
Standard
A standard is a known accurate measure of physical
quantity.
Standards are used to determine the values of other
physical quantities by the comparison method.
All standards are preserved at the International
Bureau of Weight and Measures (BIMP), Paris.
Four categories of standard:
 International Standard
 Primary Standard
 Secondary Standard
 Working Standard
Standard
International Std
 Defined by International Agreement
 Represent the closest possible accuracy attainable by the
current science and technology
Primary Std
 Maintained at the National Std Lab (different for every
country)
 Function: the calibration and verification of secondary std
 Each lab has its own secondary std which are periodically
checked and certified by the National Std Lab.
Working Std
 Used to check and calibrate lab instrument for accuracy and
performance.
INSTRUMENT APPLICATION GUIDE

Selection, care and use of the instrument :-

 Before using an instrument, students should be thoroughly

familiar with its operation ** read the manual carefully

 Select an instrument to provide the degree of accuracy

required (accuracy + resolution + cost)

 Before using any selected instrument, do the inspection for

any physical problem

 Before connecting the instrument to the circuit, make

sure the ‘function switch’ and the ‘range selector switch’

has been set-up at the proper function or range