LEARNING & HRD

Dr. Nadeem Ahmed Awan

 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Define learning and list at least three learning principles

2. Describe the three broad categories of issues that should be considered to maximize learning

3. Identify and discuss several personal characteristics (such as ability, personality) that affect trainee learning

4. Identify and discuss the training design issues that can be used to maximize learning

5. Identify and discuss the factors that affect the transfer of training, and how these can be used to maximize learning

6. Discuss how various individual differences affect the learning process

7. Discuss the value of adult learning theory to HRD interventions

8. Describe the role that learning styles, learning strategies, and perceptual preferences play in learning

9. Cite recent perspectives from instructional and cognitive psychology that have importance for HRD
Learning
o Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior, cognition, or affect that
occurs as a result of one’s interaction with the environment.
o Focus of learning is change. Either in acquiring something new or modifying something that
already exists.
o HRD professionals who understand the learning process and how to create an environment that
facilitates learning can design and implement more effective HRD interventions.
o The change must be long-lasting before we can say learning has really occurred.
o Focus of learning can include cognition, behavior, affect or combination of the three.
o It results from the individual’s interaction with the environment.
Outcomes of Learning
Outcomes can be the following:
o Cognitive (Knowledge) based.
o Psychomotor (Skill/behavior based)
o Affective ( Attitude)
 Basic Learning Principles
The cornerstone of learning theory is the concept of association. Association is the process by which two
cognitions become paired (e.g., “dozen” and “twelve items”), so that thinking about one evokes thoughts about the
other.
Three principles that influence the learning of associations
o Contiguity – tasks/objects which are experiences together tend to become associated with each other.
For example, learning vocabulary in a foreign language usually involves pairing a new word with an object or
picture of an object (like the German word Katze and a picture of a cat).
o Law of Effect- a behavior followed by pleasurable experience is likely to be repeated. Example.
Supervisor compliments to subordinate on his good performance.

Practice- Repeating the events in an association will increase the strength of the association.
◦ The effect of practice is strengthened with reinforcement, such as receiving a pleasurable consequence. Example: Rappelling from
a cliff. ( Aha! experience)
Improved Training Design
Limits of learning principles for improving training design.
 Task Analysis
 Component Task Achievement
 Task Sequencing
Task Analysis

 Break each task down into a series of distinct component tasks.

 Keep breaking tasks down to the simplest level possible.
Component Task Achievement
Task Component: A task usually comprises several task components , for example, normal
working hours, overtime or hours travelled.
 Each component task must be achieved fully before the entire task may be
performed correctly.
 You have to specify what is to be done, under what conditions, and how it is to
be evaluated.
Task Sequencing

 Each component tasks should be arranged in the paper sequence.

 Some are serial tasks.
 Some can be done in parallel/similar.

 Example: Work breakdown structure

Instructional Psychology-to maximize
learning
 Traditional learning theorists focused on describing what happens in learning situations,
 Instructional theorists focus on what must be done before learning can take place
According to Glaser, Instructional psychology helps to acquire human competence by following
four components:
1. Describe learning goal to be achieved.
2. Analyze the initial state of the learner.
3. Identify the conditions (instructional techniques, procedures, materials) allowing the learner to gain
competence.
4. Assess and monitor the learning process to determine progress and whether alternatives techniques
should be used.
Maximizing Learning (Training)

 Trainee characteristics
 Training Design
 Transfer of Training
Trainee Characteristics
Trainability-trainee’s readiness to learn
 Motivation
 Ability
 Perception of the work environment

Thus, Trainability = f (Motivation × Ability ×Perceptions of the Work Environment)

Personality and attitudes

Training Design Issues
It involves the learning environment to maximize learning
Conditions of practice
Retention of what is learned
Conditions of Practice
 Active practice: Performance of job related tasks and duties by trainees during training.
 Spaced versus massed practice – whether training is made 1 session or divide it in segments
over longer period of time. Daniel Willingham reviewed 100 years of research, and concluded that
massed practice or “cramming” was the least effective strategy for learning and retention.
 Whole versus part learning- should trainees practice an entire task (or study certain material as a
whole), or should the task or material be learned in separate parts or chunks?
 Overlearning-practice beyond the point at which the material or task is mastered.
 Knowledge of results (feedback),
 Task sequencing- knowledge can learn more effective if divide into subtasks.
 Retention of What is Learned
 The goal of training goes beyond ensuring that the trainee learns the task or material being
presented.
It is equally important that newly learned material is retained.
Three additional issues that influence retention:
a. Meaningfulness of the material-extent to which it is rich in associations for the individual learner.
b. Degree of original learning- The more effectively information is initially learned, the more likely it
will be retained.
c. Interference
- Knowledge before training- For example: Tax code of two different states.
- Information learned after a training session may also interfere with retention
Transfer of Training
Does training make it to the job?
Positive transfer-
- Job performance improves after training.
Example: T&D manager applied learned knowledge during his job.

 Zero transfer-
- No measurable changes
 Negative transfer-
- Performance becomes worse after training.
Maximize Transfer
 Identical elements- learning similar with performance situations.
 Physical fidelity
 Psychological fidelity
Identical Elements
 The closer the training is to the job, the easier it is to achieve the transfer.
 Direct relationship to the job
 Example: Customer service and angry customers
 Role playing, business games, etc.
Physical Fidelity

 The actual task that you're training is really physically similar to what the
person is doing on the job.
 The level to which the virtual environment is made to look like the real
environment. Such as equipment, tasks, and surroundings, mirror those in the
performance situation. Example: A highly realistic airline cockpit simulator.
Psychological Fidelity
 Trainee experiences same stresses and conditions as he/she is being
trained for
 Training seems psychologically real to people.
Support in Work Environment
 Transfer of training into workplace is supported.
 A continuous learning work environment
 Supervisory support help in transfer of training.
 Organization level support : Climate perceptions affected learning and behavior back on the
job.
 Training leads to promotion/better pay
 Trainee has opportunity to perform
Cognitive Resource Allocation Theory
(How brain is used)
 How well you pay attention determines how much you learn.
 How well you pay attention how well you perform.
 The greater your intelligence, the more you pay attention.
 If you are motivated, you pay attention.
How to assess trainee differences
 Instrumentality
- Does trainee think training is applicable?
 Skepticism (the attitude of doubting knowledge)
- Degree trainee questions and demand facts.
 Resistance to change
- How well is change accepted?
How to Assess Trainee Differenes-2
 Attention Span
- How long can trainee focus on the lesson?
 Expectation Level
- What does trainee expect from the trainee/training?
Expected outcomes for the trainee. Does it add in his/her career development, job
performance, or organization development.
 Dominant Needs
-What drives/motivates the trainee?
Does the training motivates to better perform on the job, to excel in his career etc.
How to Assess Trainee Differenes-3
 Absorption Level
- How fast is new information accepted?
 Topical Interest
- How interested is trainee in topic or area?
 Self-Confidence
- Degree of independence and self-regard
 Locus of Control ( perception about underlying main causes of events in one’s life)
- Can trainee implement training on job?
Gerontology
Gerontology is the study of old age and aging.

 A second approach to the question of whether older adults need to

be trained differently is rooted in gerontology and industrial gerontology.
Gerontology
Five principles can be used for the effective training and development of older adults:

1. Older workers can and do develop.

2. Supervisors need to realize that they may consciously or unconsciously exclude older workers from
training opportunities because of unwarranted negative attitudes.
3. For a training program to be effective for older workers, attention must be paid to motivation, structure,
familiarity, organization, and time.
4. The organizational climate must reward entry into training and transfer of skills back to the job.
5. Training must be considered within an integrated career perspective.
Learning Styles
 Lots of research in this area
 Many tests available to measure:
- Learning ability
- Individual learning preferences
Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory
Kolb(1974) views learning as an integrated process with each stage being mutually supportive of
and feeling into the next. It is possible to enter the cycle at any stage and follow it through its
logical sequence.
However, effective learning only occurs when a learner can execute all four stages of the model.
Four stages of learning:
- Concrete Experience (CE)- learning through direct experiences, more interpersonal relations and feeling
rather thinking.

- Abstract Conceptualization (AC) –a preference for learning by thinking about an issue in theoretical terms
- Reflective Observation (RO) – watching/observing
- Active Experimentation (AE) – doing it
Kolb’s Learning Styles
 Convergent
- Combination of abstract conceptualization and active experimentation( Thinking and Doing)
 Divergent
-Combination of concrete experience and reflective observation ( Feeling and watching)
 Assimilation
- Combination of abstract conceptualization and reflective observation ( Thinking and Watching)
 Accommodative
- Combination of concrete experience and active experimentation ( Feeling and Doing)
Summary
 Without learning, there would be no field of human resource development
 To increase learning, we must consider:
- Trainee characteristics/individual differences
- Training design issues
- Retention and transfer of training issues