Architectural Research and

Programming

-Kruti Desai
Understanding Meaning of Research
• Research is a process through which an individual or the researcher helps to search the definite or useful
information from the number of respondents to evaluate or solve the problem-related questions. In fact,
research is an art of scientific investigation or technique.
• “A systematic activity with the goal of Knowledge”
OR
• The collection, manipulation and presentation of Information”
OR
• “A personal framework for increasing understanding”
OR
• Research = Re + search
Over again to examine closely and carefully,
and again to test and try, or to probe

• A term describing a careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some field of knowledge,
undertaken to establish facts or principles (Grinnell 1993: 4).
Definition of Research
• Research is a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical i
nvestigation of 
hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations amo
ng natural phenomena”. (Kerlinger, 1986)
• “Research is a procedure by which we attempt to find syste
matically, and 
with the support of demonstrable facts, the answer to a ques
tion or the resolution of a problem”. (Leedy, 1989)
• “Research is a systematic and objective analysis and record
ing of observations that may lead to the development of the
ory”. (Best, 1992)
• “Research is an organized, systematic, databased, critical, s
cientific 
enquiry or investigation into a specific problem, undertaken
 with the objective of finding answers or solutions to it” (Se
karan, 2000)
• “Research is a systematic and critical enquiry which aims t
o contribute to the advancement of knowledge and wisdom
”. (Bassey, 1999)
Objectives of the research 
• To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (exploratory or
formulative research studies);
• 2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group (as
descriptive research studies);
• 3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated
with something else (diagnostic research studies);
• 4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (hypothesis-testing research
studies).
Motivation for Research 
The possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical
problems initiates research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability.
However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake research studies.
Many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity about new
things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening, and the like may as
well motivate (or at times compel) people to perform research operations.
 Utility of Research
• A research study plays a very vital role in studying, understanding
and solving a business problem.
• Research is a process of obtaining dependable solutions through
systematic and scientific investigations.
• Research helps us to discover the functional relationships among
various phenomena that exist in a business or a government
organization.
• Decision-making under uncertainty is a fact in every sphere of a
business.
• Research provides us inferences and generalizations that help in
forecasting the future happenings in the organization.
• All private or government organizations form their policies on the
basis of researches conducted.
Architectural Research
• Architectural research requires a global or holistic understanding of architecture. It is linked to the central
activity of architects: design. It is conditioned by the fact that there are no determinist theories of which the
design would be the application; the design itself is what connects/translates them.
• It is a development/extension/ innovation of architectural practices.
• It is interested in the generally recognized practices, subjects, and themes of architecture. Architecture is a
creative discipline oriented towards practice. It is engaged, creative, reflexive practice
Design Research
• Research through design embraces creative production, with the design process itself as a
form of discovering new knowledge.
• The most and least understood area of architectural research involves that which works through
design, which engages design itself and itself a form of research.
Architectural Research & Design
Research Difference
Factors of
Design Research
Difference
Proposal for artifact(from Knowledge and/or Application
Contribution that is
small to large scale
interventions) Generalizable
Dominant Process
Generative Analytical & Systematic

Temporal Focus Past and/or present

Future

Impacts Problem Question

Classification of Research types
• Different criteria are used to classify research types:
Deductive vs Inductive:
• Deductive Reasoning :Thinking proceeds from
general assumption to specific application
• GENERAL SPECIFIC
• Example: – Every mammal has lungs. All rabbits are
mammals. Therefore, every rabbit has lungs.
Inductive Reasoning:
• Conclusions about events (general) are based on
information generated through many individual and
direct observations (specific).
• SPECIFIC GENERAL
• Example: – Every rabbit that has been observed has
lungs. Therefore, every rabbit has lungs.
Theory vs. Hypothesis
Hypothesis
• – A belief or prediction of the final outcome of the research
• – A concrete, specific statement about the relationships between phenomena
• – Based on deductive reasoning
Theory
• – A belief or assumption about how things relate to each other
• – A theory establishes a cause-and-effect relationship between variables with a purpose of explaining and predicting
phenomena
• – Based on inductive reasoning
Empiricism
• – Acquiring information and facts through the observation of our world
Pragmatic observations
• – Developing theory through experience and observation
Research approaches
• Quantitative approach
• - Inferential :
• To form a data base from which to infer characteristics or relationships of population
• Usually means survey research where a sample of population is studied to determine its characteristics
• - Experimental :
• Some variables are manipulated to observe their effect on other variables
• Much greater control over the research environment
• - Simulation :
• Involves construction of an artificial environment within which relevant information and data can be generated

• Qualitative approach:
• Subjective assessment of,
• - Attitudes
• - Opinions
• - Behaviour
• Not subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis
Types of research with view point of
Pure research
Application
Applied Research
from the view point of
Exploratory Research
Types of research

Descriptive Research
Objectives
Correlation Research

Explanatory Research

Quantitative Research
Type of information sought/
Enquiry Mode
Qualitative Research
 Application Based Research
• Basic/Pure Research vs Applied Research
• Basic – to determine or establish fundamental facts and
relationships within a discipline or field of study.
• Ex: Develop theories …
• Applied – undertaken specifically for the purpose of
obtaining information to help resolve a particular
problem
• Finding a solution for an immediate problem / for
pressing practical problem
• The distinction between them is in the application
• Basic has little application to real world policy and
management but could be done to guide applied
research
Objective Based Research
Descriptive Research
• – the attempt to determine, describe, or identify something
• The intent is often synthesis, which pulls knowledge or information together
• Description of state of affairs as it exists at present
• Has no control over variables
• Can only report what has happened or what is happening
Analytical/ Exploratory Research
• – the attempt to establish why something occurs or how it came to be
• All disciplines generally engage in both
• Has to use facts / information already available
• Analyze these to make critical evaluation of material
Objective Based Research
Conceptual/ Correlation Research
• Related to abstract ideas / theory
• To develop new concepts / reinterpret existing ones
• That is verified by empirical research
Empirical/ Explanatory Research
• Data-based research
• Relies on experience / observation alone
• Verified by observation / experiment
• Works to get enough facts to prove / disprove hypothesis
• Evidence gathered by this is most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis
Type of information sought/ Enquiry Mode
Quantitative research
• Based on measurement of quantity or amount
• Expressed in terms of quantity
Qualitative research
• Concerned with qualitative phenomenon
• Motivation research – an important type
• Example: how people feel or what they think about a particular subject or institution
• To discover underlying motives
• Seek guidance
Other Types of Research
• Cross-sectional research/1 time - Research is confined to a single time-period
• Longitudinal research - Carried over several-time periods
• Field-setting/laboratory/simulation - Depends upon the environment
• Clinical research - case-study method
• Diagnostic research - In depth approaches to reach basic casual relations
• Historical research - Utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc
Research Methods and Methodology
Research methods
• All those methods/techniques that are used for conduction of research
• Refer to the methods the researchers use in performing research operations
• Method used by the researcher
Research methodology
• A systematic way to solve the research problem
• Science of understanding how research is done
• Study varies steps adopted by a researcher
• Researchers should know the relevant method

Methodology and Method are often (incorrectly) used interchangeable

• Methodology – the study of the general approach to inquiry in a given field
• Method – the specific techniques, tools or procedures applied to achieve a given objective
• –Research methods in economics include regression analysis, mathematical analysis, operations
research, surveys, data gathering, etc.
Criteria of good research
• Purpose should be clearly defined
• Common concepts to be used
• Explain procedure clearly - for continuity
• Results should be as objective as possible
• Report with frankness
• - Acknowledge, procedural flaws
• - Limitations of the study
• Appropriate statistical test of significance
• Reliable outcome measures
• Justify conclusions with data
• Limitation of data
• Experienced researcher
• Systematic
• Logical
Scientific Method
• The Scientific Method is a process that is used to find
answers to questions about the world around us.
• 7-step version with the following steps:
1. Formulate a question.
2. Research the question.
3. Form a hypothesis.
4. Conduct an experiment to test your hypothesis.
5. Analyse data.
6. Draw Conclusions.
7. Communicate results.
STEP 1: Formulate a question
• What do you want to know or explain?

• Use observations you have made to write a question that addresses the problem or topic you want to investigate.

STEP 2: Research the question

• This is an important step, especially when you do an independent investigation such as a science project.

• Researching your question lets you know if others have done this same experiment before and if so, what their data
suggests. If they had a widely accepted conclusion, you may want to try a different angle with your experiment or
test a different variable.
• You should also research the scientific concepts associated with the experiment. For example, if you are testing to see
which paper towel brand is the most absorbent, you should research absorbency, paper material, and quality control
testing. This will help answer the “WHY?”
Step 3: Form a hypothesis
• What do you think will happen?
• A hypothesis is your prediction for the outcome of the experiment.
• It is based on your observations and should be testable!

Step 4: Conduct an experiment to test your

hypothesis
• Design a procedure that tests your hypothesis to see if your prediction is correct.
• Record all of your data and observations and put them into a table that is neat and organized.
Step 5: Analyse data
• Is your data reliable? Does it make sense?
• Put your data into a chart or graph and look for any trends.

Step 6: Draw conclusions

• Do your data and observations support your hypothesis?
• If you cannot make a definite conclusion, you may need to try the experiment again.
• This means you may either need to rewrite your procedure if it was not specific enough; you may need to
change your hypothesis.
Step 7: Communicate results
• Report the results of your experiment to let others know what you have learned.
• This will be represented as either a lab report, oral presentation, or Science Fair display board.
• Scientists may want to repeat your procedure to see if they get the same results as you. They may also tweak
your experiment a little and have a slightly different focus.
• Also, your report may lead to a new question which may lead to another investigation. This of course brings
us right back to the first step again!
Steps in the Scientific Research Process
• Selecting a topic or population to study
• Reviewing the literature
• Focusing the question
• Matching topic to population
• Designing the study
• Collecting evidence/data
• Analysing findings
• Interpreting findings
• Informing others of your findings
 Language of Research
• Several terms have been introduced that are important to mastering research as a language. The main terms
include theory, concept, operationalize, variables, hypothesis, and sample. 
CONCEPT:
• The word ‘concept’ gives a vivid picture on something, which helps to understand the category and diversity
of particular related pragmatic phenomenon.
CONSTRUCT
• The word ‘construct’ means focused abstract idea on something inferred from an observable phenomenon.
VARIABLE
• ‘Variable’ means the factor or aspect of an issue or incident or a content which should be able to be
measured. Variable is based on values. It varies from incident to incident, issue to issue. We may have
example- if we are conducting a research on the present condition of village, there the demographic profile,
economic condition, health and hygiene status could be considered as variables.
Construct
• Abstraction that cannot be observed directly but are useful in interpreting empirical (based on experiments and
practical experience, not on ideas) data and in theory building

• For example: motivation, reading readiness, anxiety, underachievement, creativity, self-concept, maturity
and many more.
• Constructs may be defined in a way that gives general meaning or they may be defined in terms of the
operation by which they will be measured or manipulated
• Constitutive definition
• A dictionary type of definition or formal definition
• For example, intelligence may be defined as the ability to think abstractly or the capacity to acquire
knowledge
• Operational definition
• Helps researcher bridge the gap between theoretical and observable
• Two types of operational definition:
• measured operational definition and
• experimental operational definition
Measured V/s Experimental
Measured operational definition:
• Details the operation by which the investigator measure the construct
• Example:
• Intelligence may be defined operationally as scores on Stanford-Binet Intel Scale
• Creativity may operationally refer to…
• So, when you define the construct in terms of how they are measured, you know precisely what it is meant
by the term
Experimental Operation Definition:
• Details the steps taken to produce certain experimental conditions
• Example:
• Frustration in the study may take the form of preventing subjects from reaching the goal
Variables
TYPES:
• Dependent and Independent variables: An independent variable is presumed the cause of the dependent
variable –the presumed effect. Dependent variable is one which changes in relationship to changesin
another variable.
• Experimental and Measured variable: The experimental variables spell out the details of the investigators
manipulations while the measured variables refer to measurements.
• Active and Assigned variables: Any variable which can be manipulated is called active variable and if that
cannot be manipulated is called assigned variable.
• Qualitative and Quantitative Variables: the quantitative variable is one whose values or categories consist of
numbers. On the other hand this variable category can be expressed numerically. But the qualitative variable
consists of discrete categories rather than numerical units.
• Moderator and Combined Variables: The moderator variable is a secondary independent variable which is
selected for study to determine if it affects the relationship between the primary independent variable and
the dependent variable. On the other hand the combined variable maintain the relationship with a
cause ,relationship and effects.
Hypotheses
• A hypothesis is a tentative answer to a research problem that is advanced so that it can be tested.
• A hypothesis is a precise, testable statement of what the researcher(s) predict will be the outcome of the study.
• Developing hypotheses requires that you identify one character, variable or descriptor of a sampling unit that causes,
affects, or has an influence on, another character, variable or descriptor of the same or other sampling units.
• The character, variable or descriptor that affects other variables or sampling units is called the independent variable.
The character, variable or descriptor which is affected by the independent variable is called the dependent variable
or response variable.
• Eg: Relationship between sleep deprivation and test performance: Hypothesis:→ "This study is designed to
assess the hypothesis that sleep-deprived people will perform worse on a test than individuals who are not sleep-
deprived."

• A hypotheses is any assumption/presupposition that the researcher makes about the probable direction of the
results that might be obtained on the completion of the research process
• Descriptive hypotheses: This is simply a statement about the magnitude, trend, or behavior of a population
under study.
• Relational hypotheses: Expected relationship between two variables.
Criteria for hypotheses formulation
• In simple, declarative statement form.
• Measurable and quantifiable.
• Is essentially a conjectural statement.
• Has underlying assumptions on the testing of the stated relationships.
Formulating a hypothesis
• Formulating Hypothesis is important to narrow a question down to one that can reasonably be studied in a
research project. The formulation of the hypothesis basically varies with the kind of research project
conducted and can be divided into 2 types:

Qualitative Hypothesis:
• The use of Research Questions as opposed to objectives or hypothesis, is more frequent.
Characteristics
• Use of words- what or how.
• Specify whether the study: discovers, seeks to understand, explores or describes the experiences.
• Use of non-directional wording in the question.
• These questions describe, rather than relate variables or compare groups during study.
• The questions are usually open-ended, without reference to the literature or theory.
• Use of a single focus.
Formulating a hypothesis
Quantitative Hypothesis: In survey projects the use of research questions and objectives is more Frequent.
• In experiments the use of hypotheses are more frequent.
Characteristics
• The testable proposition to be deduced from theory.

• Independent and dependent variables to be separated and measured separately.

• To be either writing-questions, or objectives or hypotheses, but not a combination.

• Consider the alternative forms for writing and make a choice based on the audience for the research

comparison between variables

Represent
relationship between variables
How to Formulate an Effective Hypothesis
• State the problem that you are trying to solve.

• Make sure that the hypothesis clearly defines the topic and the focus of the experiment.

• Try to write the hypothesis as an if-then statement.

• Define the variables.

• For eg: .

• If you get at least 6 hours of sleep, you will do better on tests than if you get less sleep

• If you drink coffee before going to bed, then it will take longer to fall asleep
Types of Hypothesis
NULL HYPOTHESIS (Ho):
• A null hypothesis is a type of hypothesis used in statistics that proposes no statistical significance exists in a set
of given observations. The null hypothesis attempts to show that no observations. (H0)
• The null hypothesis attempts to show that no variation exists between variables or that a single variable is different
than its mean. It is presumed to be true until statistical evidence nullifies it for an alternative hypothesis.
• A null hypothesis is a hypothesis that says there is no statistical significance between the two variables in the
hypothesis. In the example, My null hypothesis would be something like this: There is no statistically significant
relationship between the type of water I feed the flowers and growth of the flowers.
ALTERNATE HYPOTHESIS (Ha):
• The alternative hypothesis is the hypothesis used in hypothesis testing that is contrary to the null hypothesis.
• It is usually taken to be that the observations are the result of a real effect (with some amount of chance variation
superposed).
• The alternate hypothesis is just an alternative to the null. or example, if your null is “I'm going to win up to $700”
then your alternate is “I’m going to win more than $700.” Basically, you're looking at whether there's enough
change (with the alternate hypothesis) to be able to reject the null hypothesis. If your null is “Application of bio-
fertilizer ‘A’ do not increase plant growth.” then your alternate is “Application of bio-fertilizer ‘A’ increases
plant growth.”
Hypothesis Testing
When the null hypothesis is rejected?
• When the calculated value is more than the critical value/ table value, in this case null hypothesis is rejected.
• For instance In Student x test, If calculated x value is MORE THAN the x- table value (x- critical value i.e.
assumed in null hypothesis), then null hypothesis is rejected and the test is highly significant.

When the null hypothesis is accepted?

• When the calculated value is less than the critical value or table value, in this case null hypothesis is
accepted.
• For instance In Student t test, If calculated t value is LESS THAN the t- table value (t- critical value), then
null hypothesis is accepted and the test is not significant.
Research design
• Research Design is the conceptual structure within which research would be conducted.

• The preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information.

• Function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort,
time and money

• But how all these can be achieved depends mainly on the research purpose. Research

• purposes may be grouped into four categories, viz.,

•Exploration,
•Description,
•Diagnosis, and
•Experimentation

Features of a good Research Design

• It Considers many different aspects of a problem
• It has an accurate description of a situation or of an association between variables
• The good design will be one that minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data collected and analysed.
 Determining sample design
• All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry
constitute a ‘universe’ or ‘population’.
• Quite often we select only a few items from the universe for our
study purposes. The items so selected constitute what is
technically called a sample.
• A sample design is a definite plan determined before any data
are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given
population.
• Thus, the plan to select 12 of a city’s 200 drugstores in a certain
way constitutes a sample design.
• Sampling is acceptable only when it adequately reflects the
population from which it is drawn.
• The ultimate test of a sample design is how well it represent the
characteristics of the population it purports to represents:
• In measurement terms, the sample must be valid.
• Validity of a sample depends on two considerations:
• Accuracy and Precision
Sample v/s Census
• In Census, each and every unit of population is studied.
• But only few units of the population studied isstudied in Sampling.
• Census refers to periodic collection of information about the populace from the entire population.
• However, if the next Census is far away, Sampling is the most convenient method of obtaining data about the
population.
• Census Method demands a large amount of finance, time and labour.
• Relatively less amount of finance, till labor is required for sampling.
• Results obtain by the Census are quit reliable. Results obtained by the Sampling areless reliable.
• It is more suitable to use Census Method if population is heterogeneous in nature. And it is more suitable to
use Sampling Method if population is homogeneous in nature.
• Samples have a margin of error though, which gets lower as the sample size increases.
• In other words sampling more people means obtaining better data. Instead, this type of error not present in
Census as each and every part of the geographical area has to be approached for data collection.
Characteristics of good sample design
• Sample design should be a representative sample
• Sample design should have marginal systematic bias:
• Results obtained from the sample should be generalized and applicable to the whole universe
• Sample design should have small sampling error: (Sampling error is reduced by selecting a large sample and
by using efficient sample design and estimation strategies.)
• Sample design should be economically viable
Sampling frame and Size
• Sampling frame: The sampling frame is the actual list of individuals that the sample will be drawn
from. Ideally, it should include the entire target population (and nobody who is not part of that
population).

• Sample size: The number of individuals you should include in your sample depends on various
factors, including the size and variability of the population and your research design. 
Types of Sampling
Samples can be either probability samples or non-probability samples:
Probability:
• Probability sampling is a sampling technique in which researchers choose samples from a larger population
using a method based on the theory of probability. This sampling method considers every member of the
population and forms samples based on a fixed process.
• Each element has a known probability of being included in the sample
• For example, in an organization of 500 employees, if the HR team decides on conducting team building
activities, it is highly likely that they would prefer picking chits out of a bowl.
• Types of Probability Sampling:
• Simple random sampling
• Systematic sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster/area/ Multi-stage sampling
Types of Sampling Contd…
Non-Probability
• The non-probability method is a sampling method that involves a collection of feedback based on a
researcher or statistician’s sample selection capabilities and not on a fixed selection process. 
• Samples do not allow the researcher to determine this probability.
• This type of sample is easier and cheaper to access, but it has a higher risk of sampling bias.
• E.g.:
• Convenience sampling
• Judgement sampling
• Quota sampling
Difference between Probability Sampling Methods and
Non Probability Sampling Methods

Probability Sampling Methods Non-probability Sampling Methods

Probability Sampling is a sampling technique in which Non-probability sampling method is a technique in
samples taken from a larger population are chosen which the researcher chooses samples based on
based on probability theory. subjective judgment, preferably random selection.
These are also known as Random sampling methods. These are also called non-random sampling methods.
These are used for research which is conclusive. These are used for research which is exploratory.
These involve a long time to get the data. These are easy ways to collect the data quickly.
There is an underlying hypothesis in probability The hypothesis is derived later by conducting the
sampling before the study starts. Also, the objective of research study in the case of non-probability
this method is to validate the defined hypothesis. sampling.
Probability Sampling Types
• Simple Random Sample –
• Every member and set of members has an equal chance of being included in the sample.
Technology, random number generators, or some other sort of chance process is needed to
get a simple random sample.
• Example—A teachers puts students' names in a hat and chooses without looking to get a
sample of students.
• Random samples are usually fairly representative since they don't favor certain members.
• Stratified random sample: 
• The population is first split into groups. The overall sample consists of some members from
every group. The members from each group are chosen randomly.
• Example—A student council surveys 100100100 students by getting random samples
of 252525 freshmen, 252525 sophomores, 252525 juniors, and 252525 seniors.
• A stratified sample guarantees that members from each group will be represented in the
sample, so this sampling method is good when we want some members from every group.
Probability Sampling Types
• Cluster/ Multi-stage sampling random sample: 
• The population is first split into groups. The overall sample consists of every
member from some of the groups. The groups are selected at random.
• Example—An airline company wants to survey its customers one day, so they
randomly select 555 flights that day and survey every passenger on those flights.
• A cluster sample gets every member from some of the groups, so it's good when
each group reflects the population as a whole.
• Systematic random sample: 
• Members of the population are put in some order. A starting point is selected at
random, and every nth member, is selected to be in the sample.
• Example—A principal takes an alphabetized list of student names and picks a
random starting point. Every 20th student is selected to take a survey.