LEARNING OUTCOMES

LOGIC
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. analyze information and the relationship between statements,
2. determine the validity of arguments, and
3. determine the valid conclusions based on given assumptions;
 LOGIC STATEMENTS
Every language contains different types of sentences, such as
statements, questions, and commands. For instance, if you are the
one borrowing money from a bank, the amount you pay for the
privilege of using that money is also called interest.
“Isthe test today?” is a question.
“Go get the newspaper” is a command.

“This is a nice car” is an opinion.

“Denver is the capital of Colorado” is a statement of fact.

 Statement
 A statement is a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not
both true and false
It may not be necessary to determine whether a sentence is true to determine
whether it is a statement. For instance, consider the following sentence.
Yosemite National Park is located in California.
You may not know if the sentence is true, but you do know that the sentence is
either true or it is false, and that it is not both true and false. Thus, you know
that the sentence is a statement.
 Example 1
Determine whether each sentence is a
statement.
a. Manila is the capital of the Philippines
b. How are you?
c. is a prime number
 Solution
a. Manila is the capital of the Philippines, so this sentence is true and it is a statement
b. The sentence “How are you?” is a question; it is not a declarative sentence. Thus, it is
not a statement
c. You may not know whether is a prime number; however, you do know that it is a
whole number larger than 1, so it is either a prime number or it is not a prime number.
The sentence is either true or it is false, and it is not both true and false, so it is a
statement.
d. is a statement. It is known as an open statement. It is true for x = 4, and it is false for
any other values of x. For any given value of x, it is true or false but not both.
 SIMPLE STATEMENTS AND COMPOUND
STATEMENTS
A simple statement is a statement that conveys a single idea. A compound
statement is a statement that conveys two or more ideas.

Connecting simple statements with words and phrases such as and, or, if ...
then, and if and only if creates a compound statement. For instance, “I will
attend the meeting or I will go to school.” is a compound statement. It is
composed of the two simple statements, “I will attend the meeting.” and “I
will go to school.” The word or is a connective for the two simple statements.

George Boole used symbols such as p, q, r, and s to represent simple

statements and the symbols and to represent connectives.
  
Logic Connectives and Symbols

Statement Connective Symbolic form Type of statement

 Example 2

Write the negation of each statement.

a. Ellie Goulding is an opera singer.
b. The dog does not need to be fed.
 Solution

a.Ellie Goulding is not an

opera singer.
b.The dog needs to be fed.
 Example 3
Consider the following simple statements.
p: Today is Friday.
q: It is raining.
r: I am going to a movie.
s: I am not going to the basketball game
Write the following compound statements in symbolic
form.
a. Today is Friday and it is raining.
b. It is not raining and I am going to a movie.
c. I am going to the basketball game or I am going to a movie.
d. If it is raining, then I am not going to the basketball game.
 Solution
a. Today is Friday and it is raining.
b. It is not raining and I am going to a movie.
c. I am going to the basketball game or I am going to a movie.
()
d. If it is raining, then I am not going to the basketball game.
 Example 4
Consider the following statements.
p: The game will be played in Atlanta.
q: The game will be shown on CBS.
r: The game will not be shown on ESPN.
s: The Mets are favored to win.
Write each of the following symbolic statements in words.
a. b. c.
 Solution
a. Today is Friday and it is raining.
b. It is not raining and I am going to a movie.
c. I am going to the basketball game or I am
going to a movie. ()
d. If it is raining, then I am not going to the
basketball game.
 COMPOUND STATEMENTS AND GROUPING SYMBOLS

If a compound statement is written in symbolic form, then parentheses are used to

indicate which simple statements are grouped together.
 
-------------------------------------- and are group together
 
If a compound statement is written as an English sentence, then a comma is used
to indicate which simple statements are grouped together. Statements on the same
side of a comma are grouped together

, and or not ---------------------------------- and are grouped together because

they are
 Example 5
Let p, q, and r represent the following.
p: You get a promotion.
q: You complete the training.
r: You will receive a bonus.
 
a. Write as an English sentence.

b. Write “If you do not complete the training, then you will not get a
promotion and you will not receive a bonus.” in symbolic form.
 Solution
Because the p and the q statements both appear in parentheses in the symbolic form, they are placed to the left
of the comma in the English sentence.

Thus the translation is: If you get a promotion and complete the training, then you will receive a bonus.

Thus the translation is:

QUANTIFIERS AND
NEGATION
 In a statement, the word some and the phrases there exists and at least one are called
existential quanti­ers. Existential quanti­ers are used as pre­xes to assert the existence of
something.
In a statement, the words none, no, all, and every are called universal quanti­ers. The
universal quanti­ers none and no deny the existence of something, whereas the universal quanti­
ers all and every are used to assert that every element of a given set satis­es some condition
Recall that the negation of a false statement is a true statement and the negation of a true
statement is a false statement. It is important to remember this fact when forming the negation
of a quanti­ed statement. For instance, what is the negation of the false statement, “All dogs are
mean”? You may think that the negation is “No dogs are mean,” but this is also a false
statement. Thus the statement “No dogs are mean” is not the negation of “All dogs are mean.”
The negation of “All dogs are mean,” which is a false statement, is in fact “Some dogs are not
mean,” which is a true statement. The statement “Some dogs are not mean” can also be stated
as “At least one dog is not mean” or “There exists a dog that is not mean.”
Quantified Statements and Their Negations
 Example 6: Write the Negation of a Quantified
Statement

Write the negation of each of the following

statements
a. Some airports are open.
b. All movies are worth the price of admission
c. No odd numbers are divisible by 2
 Solution
a. No airports are open
b. Some movies are worth the price of admission
c. Some odd numbers are divisible by 2
TRUTH TABLES
 Truth Value and Truth Tables
The truth value of a simple statement is either true (T) or false
(F).
The truth value of a compound statement depends on the truth

values of its simple statements and its connectives.

A truth table is a table that shows the truth value of a compound

statement for all possible truth values of its simple statements

 Truth Value of a Negation

 If a statement is true, its negation is false, and

if a statement is false, its negation is true.

Truth Table for

 Truth Value of a Conjunction

 The conjunction is true if and only if both and are

true.
Truth Value of a Disjunction
  
Example 7: Determine the Truth Value of a statement

Determine whether each statement is true or false

a. .
b. 5 is a whole number and 5 is an even number.
c. 2 is a prime number and 2 is an even number.
 Solution

a. means or . Because is true, the statement is a true statement .

b. This is a false statement because 5 is not an even number
c. This is a true statement because each of the simple statement is true.

In this section, we consider methods of constructing truth tables for a

statement that involves a combination of conjunctions, disjunctions,
and/or negations. If the given statement involves only two simple
statements, then start with a table with four rows), called the standard
truth table form
 Example 8: Truth Tables

a. Construct a table for .

b. Use the truth table from part a to
determine the truth value of , given that
is true and is false.
 Solution
a. Start with the standard truth table form and then include a column

B. Now use the truth values from and columns to produce the truth values for ,
Remember: The disjunction is true if and only if is true, is true, or both and are true.
 Negate the truth values in the column to produce the following.

  
As our last step, we form the disjunction of with and place the results in the rightmost column of the table.

a. Use the truth table from part a to determine the truth value of , given that is true and is false.
In row 2 of the table, we see that when p is true and q is false, the statement in the right most column is true.
 Example 9

a. Construct a truth table for .

b. Use the truth table from part a to determine the
truth value of , given that is true, is true, and
is false.
 Solution
 Using the procedures developed in Example 1, we can
produce the following table.

In row 2 of the above truth table, we see that is true when is true,
is true, and is false.
THE CONDITIONAL
Conditional statements can be written in if , then form or in if , form. For
instance, all of the following are conditional statements.

If we order pizza, then we can have it delivered.

If you go to the movie, you will not be able to meet us for dinner.
If n is a prime number greater than 2, then n is an odd number.

In any conditional statement represented by “If , then ” or by “If , ,” the

 statement is called the antecedent and the statement is called the
consequent.
 Example 10

Identify the antecedent and consequent in the following

statements.
a. If our school was this nice, I would go there more than once a
week.
b. If you don’t get in that plane, you’ll regret it.
c. If you strike me down, I shall become more powerful than you
can possibly imagine.
 Solution

a. Antecedent: our school was this nice

 Consequent: I would go there more than once a week

a. Antecedent: you don’t get in that plane

 Consequent: you’ll regret it

a. Antecedent: you strike me down

 Consequent: I shall become more powerful than you can
possibly imagine
 Arrow Notation

 The conditional statement, “If , then ,” can be

written using the arrow notation . The arrow
notation is read as “if , then ” or as “ implies .”
  
TRUTH TABLE FOR THE CONDITIONAL

The conditional is false if is true and is false. It is true in all other cases.
 Example 11: Find the Truth Value of a Conditional

Determine the truth value of each of the

following conditional statements.
a. If 2 is an integer, then 2 is a rational number.
b. If 3 is a negative number, then .
c. If , then .
 Solution
a. Because the antecedent is true and the consequent is
true, this is a true statement
b. Because the antecedent is false and the consequent is
false, this is a true statement
c. Because the antecedent is true and the consequent is
false, this is a false statement
THE BICONDITIONAL
 The statement is called a biconditional and
is denoted by , which is read as “ if and
only if .”
Example 12: Write Symbolic Biconditional Statements in
Words

Let and represent the following:

 : She will go on vacation.
 : She cannot take the train.
 : She cannot get the loan.

Write the following symbolic statements in words:

 Solution
a. She will go on vacation if and only if she can take the
train
b. She can get a loan if and only if she does not go on
vacation
 TRUTH TABLE FOR THE
BICONDITIONAL
Truth Value of the Biconditional
The biconditional is true if and has the same truth value.
 Example 13: Determine the Truth Value of a
Biconditional

State whether each biconditional is true

or false
a. if and only if
b. if and only if
 Solution

a. Both equations are true when and both are false when .
Both equations have the same truth value for any given
value of , so this is a true statement.
b.If , the ­first equation is true and the second equation is
false. Thus this is a false statement.
 Example 14:

Construct a truth table for the given

statement.
SOLUTION