Arguments are series of
statements that provide
reasons to convince the reader
or listener that a claim or
opinion is truthful.
FALLACIE
S AND
BIASES
Fallacies are arguments
based on faulty reasoning.
EXAMPLES OF FALLACIES:
1. AD HOMINEM - attacking the
person presenting the argument
instead of the argument itself.
EXAMPLES OF FALLACIES:
1. AD HOMINEM
Example: John sees his doctor driving
very badly one day and decides that he
must be a bad doctor because he is a
bad driver.
EXAMPLES OF FALLACIES:
1. AD HOMINEM
Example: A bag is stolen from a classroom. A
few students accuse William and Luke of
stealing the bag because they are always late for
school, even though William and Luke claim
they are innocent.
EXAMPLES OF FALLACIES:
2. APPEAL-TO-FORCE
using the threat of force or an
undesirable event to advance an
argument.
EXAMPLES OF FALLACIES:
2. APPEAL-TO-FORCE
Example: “Tooth fairies are real;
you better believe me, or I will
punch you in the nose!”
EXAMPLES OF FALLACIES:
2. APPEAL-TO-FORCE
Example: Sam's angry uncle told
him that if he did not clean his
room, he would be grounded for
three weeks.
EXAMPLES OF FALLACIES:
3. APPEAL-TO-EMOTION
using emotions such as pity or
sympathy. It occurs when a person
attempts to use emotion to convince
people that their opinion or argument
is correct.
EXAMPLES OF FALLACIES:
3. APPEAL-TO-EMOTION
Example: A soft drink company doesn’t
promote their product’s taste or nutritional
value. Instead, they say that the drink will
make you feel happy!
EXAMPLES OF FALLACIES:
3. APPEAL-TO-EMOTION
Example: A bad boyfriend tells you he
knows he is not the best partner, but he
loves you, so you should forgive him.
EXAMPLES OF FALLACIES:
4. APPEAL-TO-THE-POPULAR
the idea is presented as
acceptable because a lot of
people accept it.
EXAMPLES OF FALLACIES:
4. APPEAL-TO-THE-POPULAR
Example: My favorite band is
better than yours because they have
more fans on Facebook.
EXAMPLES OF FALLACIES:
4. APPEAL-TO-THE-POPULAR
Example: I know its true because
everybody says so. Everyone
thinks this way.
EXAMPLES OF FALLACIES:
5. APPEAL-TO-TRADITION
the idea is acceptable
because it has been true for a
long time.
EXAMPLES OF FALLACIES:
5. APPEAL-TO-TRADITION
Example: This medicine has been
used by people since ancient history.
Therefore, it must be an effective way
in treating diseases.
EXAMPLES OF FALLACIES:
5. APPEAL-TO-TRADITION
Example: “Our family has a long tradition of
male family members becoming lawyers; my
great-grandfather, grandfather, and father were
all lawyers. Thus, It’s the right and only option
for me to become a lawyer too.”
EXAMPLES OF FALLACIES:
6. BEGGING THE QUESTION
assuming the thing or idea to be
proven is true; also known as
circular argument.
EXAMPLES OF FALLACIES:
6. BEGGING THE QUESTION
Example: Smoking cigarettes can
kill you because cigarettes are
deadly.
EXAMPLES OF FALLACIES:
6. BEGGING THE QUESTION
Example: Fruits and vegetables are
part of a healthy diet. After all, a
healthy eating plan includes fruits and
vegetables.
EXAMPLES OF FALLACIES:
7. CAUSE-AND-EFFECT
Assuming “cause-and-effect”
relationship between unrelated
events.
EXAMPLES OF FALLACIES:
7. CAUSE-AND-EFFECT
Example: Our classroom smells funny. Mr.
Harris is always in the classroom.
Therefore, Mr. Harris is the reason that the
classroom smells funny.
EXAMPLES OF FALLACIES:
7. CAUSE-AND-EFFECT
Example: Many people who drink
coffee are also thin. Therefore, coffee
causes one to lose weight.
EXAMPLES OF FALLACIES:
8. FALLACY OF COMPOSITION
assuming that what is true of
a part is true for the whole.
EXAMPLES OF FALLACIES:
8. FALLACY OF COMPOSITION
Example: Trees are made up of atoms,
and atoms are not visible to the eye.
Therefore, trees are not visible to the
eye.
EXAMPLES OF FALLACIES:
8. FALLACY OF COMPOSITION
Example: “Every part of this machine
is light in weight, therefore this
machine as a whole must be light too”.
EXAMPLES OF FALLACIES:
9. FALLACY OF DIVISION
assuming that what is true
for the whole is true for its
parts.
EXAMPLES OF FALLACIES:
9. FALLACY OF DIVISION
Example: Women in the United States
are paid less than men. Therefore, my
mom must make less money than my
dad.
EXAMPLES OF FALLACIES:
9. FALLACY OF DIVISION
Example: The boys in my neighborhood
like to play basketball after school. So my
new neighbor, Kevin, will like to play
basketball with them.
BIAS is disproportionate weight
in favor of or against an idea or
thing, usually in a way that is
closed-minded, prejudicial, or
unfair.
EXAMPLES OF BIASES:
1. CORRESPONDENCE BIAS
Aka ATTRIBUTION EFFECT.
the tendency to judge a person’s
personality by his or her actions, without
regard for the external factors or influence.
EXAMPLES OF BIASES:
1. CORRESPONDENCE BIAS
Example: Imagine that you are in your favorite cafe
having some coffee. All of a sudden you hear someone
enter who is talking on their cell phone. The cafe is
relatively quiet so this person’s phone conversation is
bothersome. You look up from your coffee annoyed at the
intrusion and think, “what a rude person!”.
EXAMPLES OF BIASES:
1. CORRESPONDENCE BIAS
Example: Pretend for a moment that you reached out and called your
friend a few days ago because you wanted support with something. You
really wanted to talk to him about something but he hasn’t called you
back yet. You happen to know that this friend has his own things going
on as well. Maybe you know that he is in the middle of a nasty divorce
and is trying to move. But all you think is how inconsiderate it is that he
hasn’t called you back yet.
EXAMPLES OF BIASES:
2. CONFIRMATION BIAS
tendency to look for and readily accept
information which fits one’s own beliefs or
views and to reject ideas or views that go
against it.
EXAMPLES OF BIASES:
2. CONFIRMATION BIAS
Example: We tend to think a referee made
a good call when it is beneficial for our
team, but if it goes against our team, there’s
a good chance we will think the referee
made a bad call.
EXAMPLES OF BIASES:
2. CONFIRMATION BIAS
Example: In an organization, hiring managers tend to hire
those who share the same opinions and ideas. Such biases
happen because hiring managers want to be comfortable with
people with similar views and ideas. This hiring decision is
not the best way to get the best person since it’s based on
personal opinions and not necessarily competence.
EXAMPLES OF BIASES:
3. FRAMING
occurs when people make a decision based
on the way the information is presented, as
opposed to just on the facts themselves. The
same facts presented in two different ways
can lead to people making different
judgments or decisions.
EXAMPLES OF BIASES:
3. FRAMING
Example: A salesperson promoting a product would
much rather claim ‘85% of customers were satisfied
with the product’ than admit ‘15% of customers were
dissatisfied’. But the two statistics actually convey
the same information.
EXAMPLES OF BIASES:
3. FRAMING
Example: Take two yogurt pots. One
says “10 percent fat” and another says
“90 percent fat free”.
EXAMPLES OF BIASES:
4. HINDSIGHT
the tendency to see past events
as predictable, or to ascribe a
pattern to historical events.
EXAMPLES OF BIASES:
4. HINDSIGHT
Example: “I knew he was
trouble,” or “I tried to tell you she
was bad news,” are words we have
all heard before.
EXAMPLES OF BIASES:
4. HINDSIGHT
Example: “I knew that would
happen.”
EXAMPLES OF BIASES:
5. CONFLICT OF INTEREST
a person or group is connected
to or has a vested interest in the
issue being discussed.
EXAMPLES OF BIASES:
5. CONFLICT OF INTEREST
Example: A manager hires their nephew in a
supervisory role even though their family
member does not have any experience and other
candidates are better suited for the position.
EXAMPLES OF BIASES:
5. CONFLICT OF INTEREST
Example: A manager advocates for their
best friend's daughter to receive a
promotion over other employees in the
office who are better qualified.
EXAMPLES OF BIASES:
6. CULTURE BIAS
analyzing an event or issue
based on one’s cultural
standards.
EXAMPLES OF BIASES:
6. CULTURE BIAS
Example: Looking someone directly in the eye is one
of those customs that vary greatly depending on the
culture. In some, maintaining direct eye contact is a
show of respect and honesty. In another culture,
however, it can be interpreted as rude and even
confrontational.
EXAMPLES OF BIASES:
6. CULTURE BIAS
Example: You may experience cultural bias when
you are exposed to other cultures’ eating habits. Not
only what they eat (yuck, snails!) but also how they
eat (chopsticks?) can cause you to turn your nose up
and say “these people are strange!”
