Geotechnical Engineering (FCE 511)

 
 

Shallow Foundations

Deep foundations

Introduction to Earth Dams

Site Investigations

By Sixtus Kinyua Mwea

 
FCE 511 - Geotechnical Engineering IV - Syllabus

• Shallow Foundations
• Introduction.
• Foundation loading
• Bearing capacity
• Influence of ground water table
• Design of shallow foundations for shear strength
and settlements.
• Examples of foundation design (e.g. strips, pad),
combined footings, raft footings.
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 FCE 511 - Geotechnical Engineering IV - Syllabus

• Piled Foundation
• Types of Piles
• Design of piles
• Design from pile tests data.
• End bearing piles on rock.
• Settlement of piles.
• Dynamic formula.
• Negative skin friction.
• Pile groups -

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 FCE 511 - Geotechnical Engineering IV - Syllabus

• Introduction to Earth Dams

• Design of earth embankment - homogenous
and zoned dams. Definitions e.g. fetch, water
spread, shell free board etc. Factors
influencing site selection. Spillways.
Settlements of embankments. Protection of
upstream and downstream slopes.

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 FCE 511 - Geotechnical Engineering IV - Syllabus

• Site Investigations
• Introduction
• Purpose of Site Investigation
• Organization of Site investigation
• Methods of Investigation.
– Sampling.
– Borehole logs.
– Geophysical methods.
– Geotechnical reports.
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 Shallow foundations

• Strip foundations
– Walls and closely spaced columns
• Spread or isolated footings for individual
columns.
– Individual or closely spaced columns
• Raft foundations covering large sections
of the foundation area
– Basements for high-rise buildings covering
the entire plan area of the buildings

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 Selection
• The function of the structure,
• Structure loads
• The subsurface conditions
• The cost of the foundation compared to other
possible types of foundations.

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 Shallow foundation design
 

• Two fundamental requirements:-

• Adequacy of FOS against shear failure
• 3 to 5 is usually specified.
• Tolerable settlement
• In particular differential settlement
• The allowable bearing capacity is defined as
the pressure which may be applied to the soil
to enable the two fundamental conditions to
be satisfied

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 Mitigation against what
•  Architectural functions and Structural functions
–For framed structures settlement damage is
usually confined to the cladding and finishes
(architectural damage).
–It is usual to expect a certain amount of damage.
–damage to the services is limited.
–Angular distortion limits were proposed by Craig
(1987).

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 Table 1. 1 Angular distortion limits

• 1/150 Structural damage

• 1/250 Tilting of high rigid buildings
• 1/300 Cracks in panel walls expected
Difficulties with overhead cranes
• 1/500 Cracking is not permissible
• 1/600 Overstressing of structural frames
without diagonals
• 1/750 Machinery sensitive to settlement
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 Design process

• First determine the allowable bearing

• Then size the foundation based on the

allowable bearing capacity.

• These two parts are now discussed.

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 Bearing capacity of soils
• Ultimate bearing capacity
– produce shear failure in the soil.
• The net foundation pressure
– increase in the pressure at the foundation
level
• Allowable bearing pressure
– maximum allowable net loading intensity

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 Ultimate bearing capacity
• Increase at the foundation level,
• Shear failure takes place in the foundation
• The resulting pressure at the base of the
foundation is known as the ultimate bearing
capacity of the soil

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 Modes of failure

a) General shear
failure
b) local shear
failure

c) Punching shear
failure

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 Modes of failure

Pressure
a
c
Settle- b
ment

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 Earth pressure analogy

γd

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 Earth pressure analogy
Cohesionless soils

p q(1sin) /(1sin) (inside the foundation)

p  D(1 sin) /(1sin) (outside the foundation)

q D((1sin)/(1sin))2 (ultimate bearing capacity)

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 Earth pressure analogy
C-Ø soils

q  D((1 si) /(1sin))2  2c ((1sin) /(1sin)3  2c (1sin) /(1sin)

For Ø = 0

q  D  4c

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 use slip circle analogy
B

q
D
O

πB

The foundation fails by rotation

Radius = Width of the base
Ultimate conditions the disturbing moment
(Md) is given by

B
Md  q * L * B *
2

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 use slip circle analogy
Resisting moment (Mr) about O
- cohesion moment
- weight of the overburden moment
2
2  DLB
M r   cLB  CDLB 
2
Equating the two equations

0 . 32 D D
q  6 . 28 c (1   0 . 16 )
B c

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 Plastic theory failure

plastic equilibrium
soil is in state of elastic equilibrium.
qf

qo
A B 45+φ/2

F
E
45-φ/2
D C G

Figure 1. 4 Failure under a strip footing

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 Plastic theory failure
ultimate bearing capacity for a strip footing on
surface where the soil is weightless in
undrained condition where φu = 0

q f  ( 2   ) c u  5 . 14 c u

Foundation at depth -surcharge qo = γD. This

produce stresses on the moving masses of soil at
plastic Ultimate bearing capacity - by Terzaghi
q f  0.5BN   CN c   DN q

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 Plastic theory failure

Nγ, Nc and Nq are bearing capacity factors

dependent on φ
Nγ factor on self weight of the soil.
Nc factor due to the shear strength
Nqcontribution of the surcharge pressure

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 Plastic theory failure
N c  ( N q  1) cot 
2  tan
Nq tan (45 / 2)e

N  1.5(Nq 1) tan

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 Plastic theory failure
N
Values of Nc, Nq, Nγ 100
q

10

1
0 10 20 30 40
φ - Degrees

Bearing capacity factors for shallow

foundations
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 Plastic theory failure
square, round and rectangular foundations
Extend two dimension problem in a strip
footing to three dimension problem in other
foundation shapes

q  0.4BN  1.3cNc  DNq Square

foundation
q  0.3BN 1.3cNc  DNq Round
foundation

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 Plastic theory failure
For rectangular footing, an interpolation of the
square and the strip footing
q  0.5BN  (1  0.2 B / L)  cN c (1  0.3B / L)  DN q

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 Plastic theory failure
Bearing capacity factors are very sensitive to
the values of shear strength parameters c and
φ. In cohesive soils the contribution of
cohesion c to the bearing capacity dominates
 

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 Plastic theory failure
• The depth factor (Nq)dominates for cohesionless
soils
• The base factor (Nγ)is usually neglected for values
of B less than 4 meters
• A footing at the surface has no bearing capacity if
Nγ is neglected
• The equations are applicable to uniform soils and
in the case of stratified soils an engineering
judgment is always required
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 Plastic theory failure
10

9
Nc (Strip)
8
Nc (Circular
or Square)
Nc

4
0 1 2 3 4 5

D/B

Skempton’s values of Nc
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 Plastic theory failure

Eccentric and Inclined loading

Eccentric and inclined loadings reduce the
bearing capacity.

With eccentricities are eb and eL the effective

foundation dimensions are shown as B’ and L’

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 Plastic theory failure

Y L’

B eB B’
eL X

L
L '  L  2eL
B ' B  2eB
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 Plastic theory failure
In the case of inclined load - width B and inclination
the effective foundation width is B-2e. bearing
capacity factors are multiplied by the inclination
factors shown on Equations

Pv α P

PH
e

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 Plastic theory failure
o 2
ic  iq  (1   / 90 )

i   (1   /  ) 2

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 Plastic theory failure
Alternatively in case of inclined loads use the
empirical formula
P V / P av  P H / P ah  1

Pv =vertical component of the inclined load

PH is the horizontal component of the inclined load.
Pva is the allowable vertical load a
PHa is the horizontal load
(a fraction of the available passive resistance

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 The net foundation pressure
The net foundation pressure qnet is the
increase in the pressure at the foundation
level. This is the total foundation pressure
less the effective weight of the soil
permanently removed during excavation

q nett  q  D

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 The net foundation pressure
For a strip footing the net foundation
pressure is

qnett  0.5BN  cNc  D( Nq 1) -1.23

The net bearing pressure factored by an
appropriate factor of safety
q safe  q nett / FOS

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 Safe bearing pressure
• It is usual to use conservative factors of F usually
between 3 and 5. Due to uncertainties in
• the determination of the strength parameters
• and determination of the of the service load,
• for comparison the following factors of safety
(Table 1.2) are used in other geotechnical works
•  

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 Safe bearing pressure
• Typical FOS values
• Failure Type of works FOS
• Shear Earthworks 1.2-1.6
• Shear Retaining walls 1.5-2.0
• Shear Sheet piles 1.2-1.5
• Seepage Uplift 1.5-2.5
• Shear Bearing Capacity 3-5

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 Effect of ground water
Water table rises to a depth less than B below the
foundation level Equation 1.25
q net  CN c  D( Nq  1)   sub BN

Cohesive soils the - φ is small  BNis small.

sub

Bearing capacity is not affected by the ground water

variation

Sandy soils the term CNc is

0.5γsubBNγ is about half 0.5γBNγ. The effect of the
groundwater is significant
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 Effect of ground water
Water table above the foundation level
Net ultimate bearing capacity is given by Equation 1.26.
It is seen both cohesive and cohesionless soils are
affected by the water table rising above the foundation
levels
qnet  CNc  p'o ( Nq  1)   sub BN 1.26

Where p’o is the effective overburden above the

foundation level

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 Allowable bearing pressure

Settlement due to the safe net bearing

pressure is computed.

If settlement is not acceptable Reduce

the pressure

When the settlement is acceptable then

the pressure obtained is the allowable
bearing capacity of the soil.

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 Foundation Pressure
Ultimate loads are obtained from structural analysis.

Ultimate load is converted into the service load.

The gross load is the structural load above the ground floor plus
the overburden.

The net load at the foundation level is the load at the ground floor
in addition to the weight of the foundation less any soil which has
been replaced.

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 Foundation Pressure

For practical considerations it is

therefore not necessary to consider the
weight of the foundation below the
ground level (Figure 1.9

Gross load =P + overburden

P
Pnet = P + foundation load – replaced soil
=P

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 Field methods for the determination of bearing capacity of soils

Plate bearing test

Particularly suited for the design of foundations or

footings where it is considered that the mass
characteristics would differ from the laboratory tests
and where the precise values of settlement are
required.

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 Plate bearing test
The plate usually 300 to 750 mm square should
be rigid and flat.

Loaded by means of kentledge. The kentledge

can be any form of dead load including water,
concrete blocks etc or tension piles.

The loading procedure can be either constant rate

of loading or incremental loading procedure as
described below:-

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 Plate bearing test
Constant rate of penetration This test is
best suited to undrained conditions.

the load is applied in a controlled manner

to enable a continuous and uniform rate of
penetration.

The load is continued until a penetration

of 15% of the plate width is achieved.

The ultimate load is considered to be the

load corresponding toFCE 511the 15% of the plate
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 Plate bearing test
Incremental load test This test is best suited
to drained conditions.
A load an estimate of the maximum load is
calculated.
Five equally spaced increments are then
selected.
The load at each increment is recorded
together with the corresponding settlement.
A load is maintained until the penetration has
ceased or when the primary consolidation is
complete..
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 Plate bearing test
The ultimate load is considered to be the load
corresponding to the 15% of the plate width
penetration as in the case of the constant rate of
penetration test

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 Plate bearing test
Bearing Pressure (kN/m2)
0 200 400 600 800 1000
0
-2.5
-5
Settlement (mm)

-7.5
-10 Stiff clay,
dense sand...
-12.5
-15

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 Plate bearing test

Estimation of allowable bearing pressure from

plate bearing test results
The test is reliable only if the stratum being
tested is reasonably uniform over the significant
depth of the full scale foundation.
A weak stratum below the significant depth of the
plate but within significant depth of the foundation
would have no influence over the plate test
results but will have a significant effect over the
performance of the foundation (Figure 1.11).
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 Plate bearing test

B
b

1.5b
1.5B
Weak stratum

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 Plate bearing test
Settlement of the stratum increases with
increasing loaded area and the main problem is in
the extrapolation of the test results to full scale
scenario.
Ideally the plate test should be carried out
using plates of different sizes and at different
depths. However, this is usually not possible and
or economical.
The results are used as a guide

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 Plate bearing test
The settlement of a square footing kept at a
constant pressure increases as the footing size
increases.
The relationship is shown on Equation 1.27
relates the settlement of the test plate of 300 mm
square and that of a square foundation of width B.
2
S  S1 * (2 B /( B  0.3))
S1 = settlement under plate given pressure
intensity p
S= the settlement of a square foundation of width
B in metres under same
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pressure
FCE 511 54
 Plate bearing test
A maximum allowable settlement is determined.

A value of 25mm is generally accepted as an

allowable settlement. S is then equated to 25

B is inserted in the formula to enable the

determination of the S1.

From the relationship of p and s1 the value of p

corresponding to the calculated value of S1 is the
allowable bearing pressure subject to any
adjustments
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to511 the ground water 55
 Standard penetration test

Determination of the resistance of soils particularly sand

and loose to medium loose gravels in a test borehole
Penetration resistance of a split barrel sampler when
dynamically driven in a standard manner.
Also obtain disturbed samples for determination of
remolded properties – atterberg limits, grading etc
When used in gravels the sampler is replaced with a 60o
cone does not sample the soil.

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 Standard penetration test
Main features

A pick and release mechanism -

free fall of a hammer weigh 65 kilograms
through of 760 mm + or – 20 mm is used to drive
the sampler or the cone in the case of the gravelly
strata

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 Standard penetration test
Borehole is cleaned to remove disturbed soil at the
bottom of the borehole
Maintain the water in the borehole at the same
level or higher than the general ground water to avoid
boiling.
Lower sampler and the hammer to bottom of
borehole.
If after touching the bottom the sampler penetration
exceeds 450 mm on its own weight and that of the
hammer, the SPT value also known as N value is
recorded as zero.
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 Standard penetration test
Drive the sampler or cone in two stages
The seating drive is the initial 150mm penetration or
25 blows whichever is reached first.
Drive through a further 300mm or 50 blows which
ever is reached first. The number of blows for the 300
mm penetration is recorded as the SPT value ‘N’.
If 300 mm penetration can not be reached in 50
blows the test drive is terminated.
In this case a hard stratum has been encountered and
further driving results in damage of the split sampler. It
is usual to record the blows for every 75 mm
penetration.
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 Standard penetration test
If the test drive is terminated the penetration
corresponding to 25 and 50 blows is recorded
Interpretation of Standard Penetration Test Results
Water table
Pore water pressure generated by the hammer during
testing affects the value of N.
In fine sand or fine silt the resistance increases as a result
increased pore water pressure which does not dissipate
immediately.
When measured N if greater than 15 a correction as shown
on Equation 1.28 is performed.
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 Standard penetration test
TrueN  15  1 / 2 ( N  15 )

The relative density

N value Terzaghi and Peck Gibbs and Hortz
0-4 Very loose 0-15%
4-10 Loose 15-35%
10-30 Medium 35-65%
30-50 Dense 65-85%
50+ Very Dense 85-100%

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 Standard penetration test
The effective stress This effect can be related to the effective overburden
at the level of the testing
N ' C N N

500
Effective Overburden

400
(kN/m2)

300
200
100
0
0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
1. 29
Correction factor CN

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 Standard penetration test
Correlation between shear strength parameter φ and N and effective
overburden

50
40 φ=25
30 φ=30
SPT - N

φ=35
20 φ=40
10 φ=45
φ=50
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Effective overburden (kN/m2)

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 Standard penetration test

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 Standard penetration test
Estimation of allowable bearing pressure from standard penetration tests
Chart below for the estimation of allowable bearing capacity while limiting the
settlement to 25mm and differential settlement to 75% of the maximum
settlement.

Average value of N’ from all the boreholes at the foundation level. Use
allowable bearing capacity for the widest foundation

When the water table is at 1.0B the reduction of the allowable bearing capacity
is zero. When the water table is at the ground level the reduction is 50%.

Thus the provisional value of allowable bearing capacity obtained from Figure
1.14 should be reduced by the factor Cw shown on Equation 1.30

C w  0 .5  0 .5 D w /( D  B )
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 Static cone penetration test
The test apparatus consists of a 60o cone. The cone is
subjected to continuous penetration in the soil the rate
of 15-20 mm per second.

The tip has electrical sensors for continuous recording

of the resistance and penetration as shown on the
figure below. The friction along the cone can be
measured. Pore water pressure can also be measured.

At every penetration the resistance is measured as

load/cone area and is plotted against penetration
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 Static cone penetration test
Resistance = load/end area = qc (kN/m2)
0 200 400 600 800 1000
0
-2.5
Penetration (mm)

-5
-7.5
-10
-12.5
-15

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 Static cone penetration test
N   q c / 80 1. 31

q a  q c / 30
for B< 1.2m 1. 32

qa  qc / 50 * ((B  0.3) / B) 2 for B> 1.2m 1. 33

Nγ used Ultimate Bearing Capacity can be estimated from
Equation 1.31

And then angle of internal angle of friction can be

estimated. And then determine Nq. Then ultimate bearing
capacity can be determined.

Other empirical values of qa can be obtained from equations

1.32 through 1.33
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Allowable bearing capacity on rock stratum
The highest that an engineer can expect to get. Sometimes
unconfined compressive strength larger than the strength of the
concrete which goes to the making of the foundation.

For ordinary structures when site investigation is performed

by boring, bedrock need be proved to a depth of three meters to
discount the possibility of isolated boulders

When un-weathered rock has been reached in foundation

construction, the allowable bearing pressure is based on the
inherent strength or the parent rock.

The influence of joints, discontinuities and shear zones is to

reduce the allowable bearing capacity.

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 Allowable bearing capacity on rock stratum
The ratio of the total length of core of full diameter
and length greater than 100mm or greater to the length of
the core run (RQD) is used in the determination of the
allowable bearing pressure

RQD Allowable bearing capacity

(kN/m2)
100 29,300
90 19,500
75 11,700
50 6,800
25 2,900
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0 1,000
FCE 511 70
 Allowable bearing capacity on rock stratum
A large factor of safety on the unconfined
compression strength of the intact fragments
obtained from the borings can be used to get
allowable bearing capacity. The factor of safety
should depend on the RQD and typically range
between 6and 10.

The allowable bearing capacity should not

exceed half of the unconfined compression strength
of the intact rock fragments.

.
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. FCE 511 71
 Allowable bearing capacity on rock stratum
The allowable bearing capacity values of various rocks
varying from 12,500 kN/m2 for igneous and limestone
rocks to as low as 150 kN/m2 for weak un-cemented
mudstones
Rock strength designations based on the unconfined
compressive strengths respectively

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 Allowable bearing capacity on rock stratum
Rock strength designation by BS 5930
Classificatio Extremely Very Weak Medium Very Extremely
n Weak Weak Strong strong strong

UCS (kN/m2 Under 2 to 6 to 20 to 100 to Over 200

x103) 2 6 20 60 200

Rock strength designation by Canadian Geotechnical Association

Classificatio Very Weak Mod Mod Strong Very Extremely
n Weak Weak Strong strong strong
UCS (kN/m2 Under 2 1.25 to 5 to 12.5 to 50 to 100 to Over 200
x103) 6 20 60 200 200

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 Presumed bearing capacity of soils and rocks
Derived after many years of testing and
performance monitoring of existing structures.

Usually conservative and do not consider the

overburden above the foundation level.

They can be used as preliminary values for the very

large structures where an accurate bearing capacity
at the foundation level is needed.

In the case of smaller structures these valued can be

considered as final.
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 Presumed allowable bearing vales (BS 8004: 1986)

Catego Types of soils and rocks Value Remarks

ry ( kN/m2)
Rocks Strong igneous and gneissic rocks in sound 10000 The foundations
Strong limestone and strong sandstones 4000 should be taken to
Schists and slates 3000 un-weathered rock
Strong shales, mudstones and siltstones
Non Dense gravel, or dense sand and gravel >600 The foundation
cohesiv Medium dense gravel or medium dense sand <200-600 width to be not
e soils and gravel <200 less than 1m and
Loose gravel or loose sand and gravel >300 water level not
Compact sand 100-300 less than below
Medium dense sand <100 the foundation
Loose sand level
Cohesiv Very stiff boulder clay and hard clays 300-600 Soils susceptible
e soils Stiff clays 150-300 to long-term
Firm clays 75-150 consolidation and
Soft clays and silts <75 settlement

Very soft clays and expansive clays and silts Not applicable
Peat, organic soils, made up ground and fill areas Not applicable

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 Presumed allowable bearing values in Kenya
Soil and rock Value (kN/m2)
Red coffee soil (Red silty clay) 80-120
Medium dense sand 100-300
Loose gravel (Murram) 100-150
Dense gravel 200-400
Compact gravel and weathered rock 350-600
Un-weathered rock >600
Expansive soils, loose sands and silts Not Applicable

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 Proportioning of shallow foundations

Contact pressure distribution

The pattern of the distribution varies according to
the stiffness of the foundation. The stiffness may
be described as yielding (elastic), rigid or flexible

Yielding foundation
The stiffness of such foundation is zero.
Because of its zero stiffness there will be no
moments induced in the footing. Such a
condition exists in fresh concrete before it sets.
It has no practical significance.

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 Proportioning of shallow foundations
Rigid foundations
The rigid foundation has infinity rigidity. They are so
rigid that they do not deflect. Foundations in Concrete
considered are rigid. Their analysis is simple and leads
to economical design of the footings.

Flexible foundations
The stiffness lies between rigid and the yielding
foundations. They deflect to a certain degree
depending on the magnitude of their stiffness. The
analysis of such foundations is complicated but leads
to an economical design. However this is not usually
done in practice and is notFCEconsidered
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in these notes. 78
 Proportioning the foundations

The type of foundation, sizes and the level of the

foundation depend on the result of the site
investigation.

Usually partial factors would have been used in the

design of the columns. Un-factored loads would be
used in the proportioning of the foundations. The
general procedure for the design of the foundations
follows the following steps

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 Proportioning the foundations

Evaluate the allowable bearing pressure in a site

investigation exercise.
Examine the existing and future levels around the
structure and take into account the ground bearing
strata and the ground water level to determine the final
depth of the foundation
Calculate the loads and the moments on the individual
columns and the walls without partial factors of safety.
In many cases it is sufficiently accurate to divide the
factored loads and moments with 1.45.
Calculate the plan area of the foundation using un-
factored loads
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 Typical foundations

Axially loaded strip and rectangular foundations

The contact pressure of these foundations is
considered as uniform when loaded axially. The
pressure under the foundations should not exceed the
allowable bearing pressure of the supporting soil.
Figure 1.17 shows the pressure distribution of such
foundations.

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 Typical foundations

a) Pad foundation b) Strip foundation

c) Combined foundation d) Pressure distribution

Figure 1.17 Pressure distribution below individual and strip foundations under axial
load

8/12/2010 FCE 511 82

 Eccentrically loaded foundations
With axial and moments at their foundations
the soil pressure resultant does not coincide with
the centroid of the footing.

There is a combination of the compression

and the moment stresses. Columns can in
almost all cases resist the moments. Spread
footing cannot sustain an applied column
moment.

The base rotates and induces more moment

at the far end of the column.
8/12/2010 FCE 511 83
 Eccentrically loaded foundations
Contact pressure distribution under eccentrically
loaded rectangular foundations is derived from the
common flexural formula.
The general formula for the estimation of the
pressure when there is eccentricity in the y and x axis is
given by equation

 ( x, y )  P  A  M y  I y * x  M x  I x * y

8/12/2010 FCE 511 84

 Eccentrically loaded foundations

My and Mx = the moment about y and x axis

respectfully
Y
Mx and My L
P

Mx
B ey
x
ex

My

Ix and Iy = moment of inertia of the footing area

about the x and y axis respectively
=L*B3/12 and BL3/12 respectively
8/12/2010 FCE 511 85
 Eccentrically loaded foundations
When calculated pressure is negative this would mean
that the foundation soil is taking tension. Not possible

Change the dimensions to have only compression

pressure at the base. By trial and error get maximum
and minimum pressures on the base area.

It is prudent to place the foundation such that that there

is only eccentricity in one axis direction as explained
below.

8/12/2010 FCE 511 86

 Eccentrically loaded foundations

M
M M

L L
L
e

a) e<l/6 b) e=l/6 c) e>l/6

Figure 1.19 Soil pressures below footing

8/12/2010 FCE 511 87
For eccentricity outside middle third
The distribution of pressure is triangular. The
equations applicable can be derived from basic statics
and geometry
L ' L
  e
3 2
P
M

B
L
L’
2* P
q
e=M/P L’/3 3B(l / 2  e)
q
P  ( BL ' )
2
8/12/2010 FCE 511 88
 Rectangular combined footings

Columns located off center will result in a non

uniform soil pressure. The center of gravity of the
columns loads to coincide with the center of the
footing.
The column loads are taken as point loads and
distributed into the footing. The footings are statically
determinate for any number of columns
P1 P2
s Variable

q  P / A

8/12/2010 FCE 511 89

 Trapezoidal shaped footing
Needed when a combined rectangular footing
will not result in uniform pressure. The centre of
the area + is to coincide with the center of
gravity of the loads

b X’
a
A  P / qa

L
a=0, triangular base
a  b
A  L a=b, rect. base.
2 Solution true for
1 L 2a  b L
 x 1

L
x  * 3 2
3 a  b
8/12/2010 FCE 511 90
 Strap or cantilever footings
P1 s P2
S
R 1  P 1 1
S

L1 L2 R2  P1  P2  R1
x e L1/2

R1
S’
R2 L1 / 2  e  x
R 1  B 1 * L1 * q a and R2  B 2 * L2 * q a
Thus an eccentrically loaded column combined with
an interior column. The strap is used to transmit the
moment caused by eccentricity to the interior
column
8/12/2010 FCE 511 91
 Strap or cantilever footings

Uniform soil pressure applied to both footings to

avoid differential settlements. The strap is an
alternative combined rectangular or trapezoidal
footing.
Eccentricity e is chosen arbitrary by the
designer. Unique solution of the strap footing is not
always possible. The strap must be rigid
(Istrap/Ifooting>2. No contact with the soil and strap
considered as weightless
To be considered as last option when other
alternatives are not attractive

8/12/2010 FCE 511 92

 Raft foundations

Large concrete slab used as a foundation of a several

columns in several lines. It may encompass the entire
foundation area or only a portion. Raft foundations are
generally used to support storage tanks, several pieces of
industrial equipment or high rise buildings

(a) (b) (c)

a) Flat slab; (b) Thickened under columns or beam slab

8/12/2010 FCE 511 93
(c) Basement walls as part of the raft or cellular
 Raft foundations

When over half the foundation area is covered

with individual and combined footings. They reduce
settlement and are particularly suitable for structures
sensitive to settlement.
The effect of combining the column bases is increase
in the bearing capacity of the foundation. This is
because the bearing capacity increases with the breadth
of the base. The raft foundations bridge over the weak
spots.
A raft foundation is considered as rigid if the column
spacing is less than 1.75/λ. λ is given by Equation 1.44
 
8/12/2010 FCE 511 94
 Raft foundations
1 / 4
 K * b 
  
s

 4 * E c * I 

 Ks =coefficient of sub-grade reaction

b = width of strip of the raft between centres of adjacent
bays
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete
I = the moment of inertia of the strip of concrete
λ. = characteristic coefficient
K s  40 * F * q a
 
Where F = the factor of safety applied to the ultimate
bearing capacity
qa = the allowable bearing FCE
8/12/2010 capacity
511 95
 Raft foundations
Column loads do not vary in magnitude by more than
20%. The column loads should also be uniformly
spaced. The design of the raft follows the following
basic steps.
Compute the maximum column and wall loads
Determine the line of action of the resultant of all the
loads.
Determine the contact pressure distribution using
Equation 1.46.
Figure 1.26 shows the arrangement of the columns
and the eccentricities with respect to x and y axis.

8/12/2010 FCE 511 96

 Raft foundations
P P * e y * y P * e x * x
 ( x, y )   
A Ix Iy
P=total loads on the raft
A = Total area of the raft
x, y =Coordinates of any point on the x and y axis
passing through the centroid of the raft
Ix and I y = moment of inertia of the area of the raft with
respect to the x and y axis respectively
ex and ey = the eccentricities of the resultant force in the
x and y direction

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 Raft foundations
Y

P1 P2 P3
∑P
B ex + X
P4 P5 ey P6

P7 P8 P9
L

Obtain the pressures at the four corners and

Interpolate in between.
Determine the moments and shears different
locations to enable design
8/12/2010 FCE 511
of the raft 98
 Raft foundations

Resultant of column and wall loads

σmin
σmax
Resultant of soil pressure

8/12/2010 FCE 511 99

 Foundation depth

Below the depth with minimum moisture variation

over the years and seasons. This eliminates the
shrinkage and collapse effects of the foundation soil.
In this country a depth of between 1.0 and 1.5 metres is
usually sufficient.
Below top soil and below depths with roots of trees.
The roots are potential water paths which weaken the
foundations.
Consideration to existing nearby structures. The
excavation of the foundation in the vicinity of the
existing structures could lead to loss of lateral support
of the neighboring structures.
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. FCE 511 100
 Foundation depth
Special attention should be taken to foundations
supported on expansive soils and those on loose sandy
silts which are likely to be saturated during the lifetime
of the structure.
For water structures viz: - river bridges, it is
necessary to take extra care to ensure that scouring of the
foundation vicinity does not impair the safety of the
foundation. It is usual to use gabions in areas where
scouring is likely to erode the foundations such as
downstream of box culverts and around abutments and
pier foundations.

8/12/2010 FCE 511 101

 Foundation depth
Place foundations at one level throughout. If not
possible have the foundations at one level, the change
of level should be at one plane.
Sloping foundation levels should be completely
avoided even if they are on rock. There is a risk of the
foundation sliding

8/12/2010 FCE 511 102

 Foundations for common buildings
Single and double storied buildings with structural
walls as the main form of support. The spans
should generally not be bigger than six metres.
The buildings are generally on good bearing
soils. The bearing soils include red coffee soils,
gravelly soils and firm sandy, gravelly clays. The
footing for these common buildings is shown on
Figure 1.27.
The 600 mm width is a practical width
which allows masons to maneuver into the trench.

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 Foundations for common buildings

200-150 mm thick masonry 100mm slab with BRC no 65 at

wall the top face

200-150 DPC Damp proof membrane

150 mm minimum
drop
100-200 mm thick
hardcore
A minimum
of 1000 mm
depth of 600mm wide x 200mm deep
foundations mass concrete foundation

8/12/2010 FCE 511 104

 Foundations for common buildings
No reinforcement is needed for strips. Load can be
distributed through 45o.

The last 150mm excavation be finalized when the

concreting can be done without further delay to
minimize softening of the foundation.

The mass concrete is in mass concrete usually by

volume batching to achieve grade 15 concrete. A ratio
of 1:3:6 for cement sand and ballast respectively is
generally sufficient.
.
8/12/2010 FCE 511 105
 Foundations for common buildings

Reinforced concrete foundations are done for areas with

concentrated loads. These are usually column supports.
Grade 25 concrete is the lowest class of concrete
allowed in the new BS 8110, but grade 20 of concrete
can be considered for the mwananchi.

8/12/2010 FCE 511 106

 Foundations for difficult soils
Expansive soils
Alternate heaving and shrinkage of the clays.
Typically black or grey and are referred to as black
cotton soils in this country.
The cycle of expansion and shrinkage is a result
of ability of the clays to take in water and retain it
in its clay structure.
The water absorption leads to expansion of the
clay and causes strains in the foundation and the
structures supported thereupon. The strains
eventually cause the cracks to appear on the walls.
The result is structural safety and aesthetics of the
8/12/2010
buildings are compromised
FCE 511 107
 Expansive soils
Relationship of swelling potential and plasticity
Swelling Potential Plasticity index (PI)
Low 0-15
Medium 10-35
High 20-55
Very High Over 55

The following methods can be applied to

mitigate damage control
-Moisture control
- Soil stabilization
8/12/2010
- Structural measures
FCE 511 108
 Expansive soils
Moisture control
This seasonal fluctuation decreases with depth in
some cases up to 1.5 metres. In other areas it will be
deeper going down to over three metres. In addition to
the ground water fluctuation the surface water from
rains or bust pipes seeps into the foundations and course
moisture migration.
Stabilizing the soil moisture under and around the
structure. It does not matter whether the moisture is
maintained
. high or low in so far as it can be maintained
throughout the year

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 Expansive soils

Building
Subsurface drain

Plan

Ground floor with

Masonry walling double mesh A142

Original ground
2 metre wide water level
tight apron
Compacted granular
Coarse sand material at high water
drains at 2 content
metre intervals Subsurface drain
Expansive soil
Section
8/12/2010 FCE 511 110
 Soil stabilization

- Pre-wetting or flooding the in-situ soil to achieve

swelling prior to construction.
- Compaction control
- Soil replacement
-Chemical stabilization
Pre-wetting or flooding the in-situ soil
Achieves swelling prior to construction
Involves the flooding of the site under
consideration prior to construction.
Soil heaves and the potential danger of cracking is
eliminated.
8/12/2010 FCE 511 111
 Pre-wetting or flooding the in-situ soil

Difficult to saturate high plasticity clays. Expansion

could continue after the construction has taken place.

This procedure should be considered for stabilizing

pavement or canal linings. In only rare cases should the
method be considered for use below ground floor slabs.

Its application below building foundations is risky and

questionable.

8/12/2010 FCE 511 112

 Compaction control
Has been used in pavement construction. Expansive
clays expand very little when compacted at low
densities and high moisture contents.

Will expand considerably when compacted to high

densities at low moisture contents. The approach is to
compact swelling clays at moisture contents slightly
above their natural moisture content for good result.

It is not necessary to introduce large amounts of water

into the soil. Dry compaction of expansive soils was
done along the Lodwar-Kakuma road in the seventies.
8/12/2010 FCE 511 113
 Soil replacement
The simplest an easiest solution for slabs and
footings founded on expansive soils. The expansive
foundation soils are replaced with non-heaving materials
In Nairobi the depth of the expansive black cotton
soils is in the region of 1.0 to 1.5 metres. In this case it
has been found desirable to remove the entire expansive
soil below buildings and replace with suitable granular
material.
When the expansive soil is deeper building slabs can
be constructed above the compacted soil covering the
expansive soil but the foundation of main structure
needs further consideration.
8/12/2010 FCE 511 114
 Useful for the construction of highway pavement in a
site completely overlaid with expansive soils where the
alternative to reroute the road is not viable. In this case
it the lower expansive soils are overlaid with the
compacted replaced material to a depth of 1.5 metres.

Chemical stabilization
Additives like cement and lime to expansive soil to alter
its chemical structure and in the process retard its
potential expansiveness. Lime reduces the plasticity of
the soil and hence its swelling potential. The amounts
used range from two to eight percent by weight. Cement
on the other hand reduces the liquid limit, plasticity and
8/12/2010 FCE 511 115
potential volume change.
Chemical stabilization

Stabilization has been used mainly in highway and

airport construction

Structural measures
•Floating foundation
•Reinforcement of brick walls
•Foundation on piles

Floating foundation
This is a stiffened foundation. A slab on ground
foundation with the main supporting beams resting
on non-cohesive non heaving material.
The slabs are designed fixed on the beams that
assuming
8/12/2010
a heave pressure of
FCE 511
20 kN/m2
. 116
 Floating foundation
The expansive pressures for expansive soils in Kenya lie
between 300 and 500 kN/m2. Results of such an
approach have been mixed where they have been tried.
This method needs further research
Reinforcement of brick
Tried in South Africa. Reinforcement is placed in brick
walls. The reinforcement is placed where cracking
usually takes place. This is typically above and below
openings. The structure is made also semi flexible by
providing joints in the brickwork so that when heave
takes place the building will conform to the new ground
shape and consequently reduce the bending moment
induced
8/12/2010 in the walls. The joints
FCE 511 are typically 1.5cm wide.
117
Foundation on piles

The procedure ignores heave by placing the

footing to a sufficient depth. The depth of the pile
should leave an expansion zone between the
ground and the building to allow the soil to swell.

A bell or under reamed section is sometimes

provided below the active zone.

8/12/2010 FCE 511 118

Foundation on piles

An oversize shaft which is subsequently filled with straw

saw dust as filler to eliminate uplifting of the pile by
heaving soil.

The pile could be a straight and the effect of the uplift

calculated using Equation 1.47 The friction below the
active zone is utilized in the calculation of the bearing
capacity of the pile.

8/12/2010 FCE 511 119

 Foundation on piles

Beam Beam

=the total uplift

uplift
uplift h Active
zone
h h D = the diameter of the pile
h = the depth of active zone
Support by Support u = the swelling pressure
skin
friction h1 Stable h1 by skin
friction
f = the coefficient of friction
zone
between the pile and the soil
f may be taken as 0.15 when
the swelling pressure varies
Straight pile Under ream pile
between 250 and 500 kN/m2

8/12/2010 FCE 511 120

Foundations on loose sands

Collapse of the supporting sand in the event

of large storms. Loss there bearing capacity.
Settlement of the foundations and the
superstructure
Cracks of walls and structural elements
In Garissa teachers college buildings were
placed on sand strata. The area is generally dry
but when the rain comes, it usually very heavy
and comes in large storms.
Some buildings had a ground beam and
framed with columns and a concrete roof slab
reinforcing the inbuilt masonry walls.
8/12/2010
. FCE 511 121
 Foundations on loose sands
This type of construction produced a satisfactory
performance ten years after construction.
The second type of buildings consisted of three and
four and three framed storied flats which were
performing well ten years after construction
The third type of the were constructed with a ground
beam and masonry walls and no framing columns .
The roof of the buildings was a concrete slab.
These houses developed cracks in the walls and
after about 10 years of service and needed attention

8/12/2010 FCE 511 122

 Foundations on loose sands

Based on the satisfactory behavior of the framed

structures it was found prudent to introduce columns at
the masonry wall corners in a repair scheme.
It is therefore recommended for foundations on
loose sands the masonry should be reinforced with
columns at the corners.
Additionally foundations should be kept as far as is
possible free from percolating water. In this way the in
the event of settlement the frame will be able to absolve
the stressed attributable to additional settlement and
reduce the severity of the cracks
8/12/2010 FCE 511 123
 Foundations on loose sands

Cracks in the walls occasioned by settlement of the

foundation

8/12/2010
Introduction of columns to stiffen the walls
FCE 511 124
 Deep Foundations

Deep foundation can be categorized into three major

types. These include

•Pile foundations
•Drilled piers
•Caisson foundations.

The ground and structural conditions which require the

use of the two types are discussed under each of the
sections dealing with the two types of the foundations.

8/12/2010 FCE 511 125

 Pile foundations

Transmit surface loads to lower levels in the soil

mass. Other types of foundations are unsuitable
The soils are too weak or too compressible to
provide adequate support to the structure load.
 Piles have small cross-section area compared to
their lengths. The pile materials generally include
timber, steel or concrete.
Load carried by vertical distribution of load along the
pile surface and at the pile end point.

8/12/2010 FCE 511 126

 Circumstances

Weak strata is ignored and the load is transferred to an

overlying strong bedrock or compact layer.

Shaft friction when compact layer is very deep and

would be impractical to reach it

Structures over water where conventional exaction

and construction of the foundation is not possible or
very expensive to achieve.

Reduction of settlement and in particular differential

settlement.
8/12/2010 FCE 511 127
 Circumstances

Based on cost. Might be economical to drive piles

down the strata and then build on top of the piles
instead of having to excavate deep layers and then
construct ordinary foundations.

To take uplift, horizontal and/or inclined forces.

This is especially true for marine and harbor works.

To increase the bearing capacity by vibration and

compaction of granular layers of soil.

In soils where deep excavations would result in

damage of existing buildings
8/12/2010 FCE 511 128
 Classification of piles
Classify by the material
Material used for construction of the pile. Concrete,
steel, timber etc

The main function

The way the pile takes up loads by
End bearing
Friction
Combination of the two.

8/12/2010 FCE 511 129

 Classification of piles
Other functions
 tension piles which take lateral forces

 fender piles also referred to as dolphin piles

are marine structures principally for taking
horizontal loads from vessels in the docking
areas

8/12/2010 FCE 511 130

 Types of piles by function
Soft Soft
soil soil
Soft
soil Friction
resistance Firm
strata

Hard strata

End bearing pile Friction pile Combination

Impact from
floating object

Tension resistance

Tension pile
Dolphin or fender
pile
8/12/2010 FCE 511 131
 Types of piles

Driven piles Bored piles

Large displacement Small displacement Replacement

Preformed. Solid Cast in place formed Steel sections A void is formed

or hollow tubes by driving closed H Piles by excavation.
closed at the end tubular sections Open ended tubes the void is filled
and left in position and then filling the unless a plug forms with concrete
void as the tube is during driving
withdrawn sides may be
Supported or
unsupported
Solid Hollow
The supporting may effected permanently
Pre-cast concrete or Steel or concrete by casing or
Timber. Formed to tubes closed at the Temporarily by casing or drilling mud
required lengths as bottom. Filled or (Betonite) or
units with mechanical
8/12/2010 unfilled after driving
FCE 511 By soil on a continuous auger 132
 Principal Types of piles

a) H and pipe b)b)RC

RCPrecast
Precast c) Shell Pile d) Cast in-situ tube e) Bored pile
piles pile
pile withdrawn

8/12/2010 FCE 511 133

 Driven piles

Prefabricated and some form of cast in place

piles –driving is needed
The piling is commonly done by means of a
hammer.
The hammers may be free falling operated by
a clutch release mechanism.
Alternatively they are powered by diesel or
steam. There are several forms of mechanical
devices and equipment in the market used by
piling contractors. In order to reduce the impact
stresses on the hammer and the piles it is
normal to strike the pile through a hammer
cushion. The elements
8/12/2010 FCE 511
of cushion vary but are
134
 Driven piles
The efficiency of the hammer is the energy delivered
at impact divided by the gross rated energy. Energy
having been lost in the dropping of the hammer to pile.
For driving piles to great length the hammers have
energies of between of between 50kNm to over
180kNm.
Piles are installed by impact hammers and driven to
a resistance measured by number of blows required in
the final stages of piling. For wood piles the energy
would be limited to about 3 to 4 blows per 25mm
penetration when energy of 15kNm is applied by the
hammer..
8/12/2010 FCE 511 135
 Driven piles
 If the pile is to be driven through heaving strata
then, it might be necessary to predrill the borehole
where the pile is to be driven. This eliminates
undesirable heaving.

 If the pile is to be driven through dense layers of

sand and gravel it is possible to loosen the hard
strata by sending a stream of water jet with specially
adapted equipment.

8/12/2010 FCE 511 136

 Driven piles
Timber Piles
 The timber should be preserved to prevent decay.
 If the timber is exposed to alternating wetting and
drying it is subject to decay.
 These types of piles are not very common
Steel Piles
 Usually in form of H-Piles and pipe piles. H
piles are preferred where high depth is required
 Pipe piles are usually filled with concrete after
driving.

8/12/2010 FCE 511 137

 Steel H piles
H piles
 Flanges and the web are equal thickness in
order to withstand large impact forces.

 Steel H piles penetrate the ground more readily

than other pile types because of the relatively small
cross-section area.

 Steel H piles have also relatively large bearing

capacity of between 500 and 2,000 kN per pile.
The pile H sections are usually 250x250 to 350x350
with varying section thickness.
8/12/2010 FCE 511 138
 Pipe piles
 Pipe piles are of the range of 250mm to 750 mm
diameter. The wall thickness is usually over 2.54mm. In
the event that the wall thickness is less than 4.54mm the
pile has to driven with a mandrel.

 When the thickness of wall is over 2.54mm the pipe

acts with any concrete in carrying the load. Pipe piles
are usually driven with the lower end closed with a plate.

 In some instances conical driving shoes have been

attached. The advantage is not significant.

8/12/2010 FCE 511 139

 Disadvantages of steel piles
.

8/12/2010 FCE 511 140

 Pre-cast Concrete Piles

Cast in a casting yard and transported to the

construction site.

Where hard driving is expected the tip of the pile

is fitted with a driving shoe.

They are usually of square or octagonal section.

The reinforcement is necessary within the pile to
withstand both handling and driving stresses. It is
necessary that the exact length to be installed be
determined accurately.

8/12/2010 FCE 511 141

 Pre-cast Concrete Piles
 Can be extended with difficulty by use of a
coupling

 If the length provided proves to be longer than

needed at the site, the piles have to be cut again with
difficulties.

 Pre-stressed concrete piles are used and

generally have less reinforcement. The pre-stressing
reduces the incidence of tension cracking during
handling and driving. The difficulties related to the
pre-cast concrete piles also apply to the pre- stressed
concrete
8/12/2010
piles FCE 511 142
 Pre-cast concrete piles
Have relatively large bearing capacity of
between 800 and 2,000 kN per pile

Disadvantages of concrete piles

The presence of high concentrations of
magnesium or sodium sulphate in the piled
environments causes the piles to deteriorate. The
deterioration is in the form of rust in the
reinforcement, cracking and spalling.

The best practice is dense concrete of high

quality or the use of pre-stressed piles which are not so
much susceptible because
8/12/2010 FCE 511
tension cracks are 143
 Driven cast in place piles

Driven cast in place fall in two categories

namely case or uncased type.

In the cased type also known as shell the shell

type a corrugated steel or pipe which is driven
into the ground.

The driving is terminated when the desired

length of the pile has been achieved.

The concrete is poured in the shell and left

place. In the shell is then left in place
8/12/2010 FCE 511 144
 Shell type of pile
(1) RC shells threaded on
mandrel and set in position
(2 ) Pile driven to the
required set
(3) Mandrel is withdrawn
and top shells above the top
of the pile are removed. A
cage of reinforcement is
introduced
(4) Core concrete is
(1)
inserted

(2) (3) (4)

8/12/2010 FCE 511 145

 Franki pile.
In the uncased type a steel tube is driven into the
ground and tube is withdrawn upon concreting. A
schematic installation of a typical driven cast in situ
pile where the casing is withdrawn.
(1) A gravel pug is compacted
at the lower end of the pile
tube
(2) Pile driven to the required
(1) set
(3) Plug broken and a concrete
plug is formed
(4) Core concrete is inserted
(2) (3) (4) (5)
(5) Tube is withdrawn as
concrete is placed
8/12/2010 FCE 511 146
 Difficulties in the installation of driven piles
The installation of driven piles has difficulties due
to various factors incidental to the installation
procedures and to the ground encountered at the
sites.

Handling of the preformed sections which could

lead to damage of the piles before installation.

Noise arising from the hammer dropping on to

the pile. This can be particularly undesirable in
sites in the busy neighborhoods.

8/12/2010 FCE 511 147

 Difficulties in the installation of driven piles
Spoiling of pile heads and or pile toes. This usually
takes place due to overdriving piles when refusal has
been reached. It is usually sufficient to achieve a
penetration of 2-2.5 mm per blow in the last stages of
piling.

Piles of small cross-section especially H piles driven

in boulderly strata could easily alignment. Vertical piles
could end up having bent up shapes and hence lose their
carrying capacity.

They can easily go out of plumb without the piling

team recognizing since the depth is sometimes big
8/12/2010 FCE 511 148
 Difficulties in the installation of driven piles
 Deviations from the vertical of below 10% are
usually accepted.

A penetration of 2 to 2.5mm per blow should

be considered as refusal and further driving would
generally cause deterioration

8/12/2010 FCE 511 149

 Environmental disadvantages
corrosion
The corrosion is minimal when the entire pile
is embedded in natural soil.
Zones of water table variation are particularly
vulnerable.
Severe attacks are encountered on sea
structural sections exposed to high and low water
tides where the salt sprays can significantly cause
corrosion.
The standard practice is to use piles which
have a factory applied epoxy coating.
The most vulnerable sections of the piles
should be encased in concrete.
8/12/2010 FCE 511 150
 Bored piles
The borehole is effected by various methods using
piling equipment. The bore is supported by casing or
by drilling mud (bentonite suspension).

At the required depth boring is stopped and the hole

is filled with concrete. If required a cage of
reinforcement is placed before concreting is done.

With the use of bored piles larger diameter piles

have been installed with corresponding high bearing
capacities. They are constructed in diameters ranging
from 300mm to as high as 2400mm.
8/12/2010 FCE 511 151
They have been performed to depths of 70 metres and
below and can be constructed vertically or in rakes of up
to 1:4. Ideal for many site conditions. The main
construction methods include bored piles with casing
support and bored piles with bentonite support.

Bored piles with casing support

 casing is advanced and the material below the casing
area is excavated and brought up for examination and
testing where necessary. After the depth needed has
been achieved the reinforcement cage is inserted
followed
8/12/2010
by concreting FCE 511 152
Bored piles with bentonite support
Alead casing is advanced into the soil. The material
below the casing area is excavated and brought up by
use of drilling equipment with a bucket which can bail
out the drilled soil.

The excavated soil is examined and tested where

possible. The drilled hole is supported by drilling mud
After the depth needed has been achieved the
reinforcement cage is inserted followed by concreting.

8/12/2010 FCE 511 153

 Installation with support
 
by casing

Install casing Advance the Insert Place concrete Complete pile

using an casing and reinforcement with a tremie pipe
oscillator excavate with cage as casing is
grab withdrawn

This installation is particularly desirable in gravelly and boulderly conditions

8/12/2010 FCE 511 154

 Installation of a bored pile with drilling mud

Install starter Advance into the soil Insert Place concrete with Complete pile
casing by drilling and reinforcement cage a tremie pipe as
supporting with and recycle casing is withdrawn
bentonite bentonite

This installation is suitable in all soils

8/12/2010 FCE 511 155

 Difficulties in the installation of bored piles
 Poor base preparation after the bearing strata has
been reached. Loose particles be difficult to detect
or remove. The base the pile will have a lower
bearing capacity than would have been expected.
Grouting has been done in some cases

 Poor concreting control where the pile is being cast

under artesian conditions. This usually results from
poor shaft control as the concreting continues.
Necking of the concrete; washout of various sections of
the pile. Under ideal conditions the concrete under
tremie conditions should always be placed inside the
wet concrete.
8/12/2010 FCE 511 156
 Difficulties in the installation of bored piles
 Vibration and movement of the ground in the
vicinity of the pile under construction.

 It is to be noted that these difficulties are also

present in the driven cast in place piles where the
casing is withdrawn as concreting proceeds

8/12/2010 FCE 511 157

 Determination of pile load carrying capacity
Geotechnical data
 Site investigation is used to establish
geotechnical properties of the soil where the
piles will be installed.

 The parameters obtained in the investigations

are then used in the estimation of the load
carrying capacity of the piles.

 Piles derive their capacity from base

resistance and from side friction.

8/12/2010 FCE 511 158

 Determination of pile load carrying capacity
 The ultimate load that can be carried by a pile is
then given by Equation 2.1.

 The terms are explained in Figure 2.6. The

accuracy of the equation depends on the determination
of the parameters used in the determination of Qb and
Qs.

8/12/2010 FCE 511 159

 Determination of pile load carrying capacity

= Ultimate Load carrying capacity of the pile

Ultimate Load carrying capacity of the base

of the pile

= Ultimate Load carrying capacity of the pile

side friction

8/12/2010 FCE 511 160

 Determination of pile load carrying capacity

Ab= Area of the pile at the toe of the pile

qf = Ultimate bearing capacity at the toe of the pile
= Surface area of the pile shaft
= Ultimate shearing resistance of the shaft

Qs

Qb

8/12/2010
Load distribution FCE
of511load on a pile 161
 Determination of pile load carrying capacity
A FOS is applied to the ultimate load

Different values for the base and the side friction.

The movement needed to mobilize the friction

resistance is much less than the movement needed to
mobilize the base resistance.

Initially as the pile is loaded the load is taken by the

side friction and as load is increased the base takes more
load.

8/12/2010 FCE 511 162

 Determination of pile load carrying capacity
At failure the proportion of load supported by
friction may actually decrease slightly due to plastic
flow of the soil near the base of the pile..

8/12/2010 FCE 511 163

 Cohesive soils

The base resistance

The load carried by the piles at the base, Qb is based on the
bearing capacity factor Nc .

= bearing capacity factor which is usually taken as 9.0

= undisturbed un-drained shear strength of the soil at the
base of the pile

8/12/2010 FCE 511 164

 Cohesive soils

In driven piles the clay adjacent pile is displaced

both laterally and vertically. The ground the pile heaves
and courses reduction of the bearing capacity of the pile.

The clay in the vicinity of the pile is completely

remolded during driving. Excess pore water pressures
are set up during driving.

This pore pressure dissipates in a few months and

in any case before significant load is applied to the pile

8/12/2010 FCE 511 165

 Cohesive soils
In the case of bored pile, the clay area around the
pile will be remolded.

Water seeps towards the created borehole their

softening of the soil in the vicinity of the pile.

Water can also be absolved from the wet concrete

when it comes in contact with the clay.

There is subsequent reduction of the pile

bearing capacity.
8/12/2010 FCE 511 166
 Cohesive soils

Side friction

= adhesion factor between the pile and the soil

= Average undisturbed shear strength of soil

adjoining the pile

= The shaft area

8/12/2010 FCE 511 167
 Cohesive soils

problem usually revolves accurate determination of

the value of α. In soft clays driving of piles tend to
increase strength around the pile. A value of α equal to 1
can be used. It is however unlikely that the soil will not
in the long run return to its original soft status after
some time.

In over-consolidated clays the value varies from

0.3 to 0.6. A value of 0.45 is usually used for design
purposes.

8/12/2010 FCE 511 168

 Cohesive soils
An alternative is approach is to express skin
friction in terms of effective stress. The rationale of this
approach is that the area of disturbance during pile
installation is relatively small. The excess pore water
pressure induced in the installation process dissipates
ahead of the application of load.

Ks= the average coefficient of earth pressure

8/12/2010 FCE 511 169
 Cohesive soils

= the average effective overburden pressure

adjacent to the pile shaft
= the angle of internal friction of the remolded
clay. The cohesion intercept of remolded clay in
an drained triaxial test being zero.

8/12/2010 FCE 511 170

 Cohesionless soils
Base resistance

= The bearing capacity coefficient.

= The effective overburden pressure at the base of pile
100
Nq
Value of Nq

10
25 35 45
φ in Degrees

The bearing capacity attributable to the base Nγ is

usually ignored as B is small
8/12/2010 FCE 511 171
 Cohesionless soils
Side friction

Ks = average coefficient of earth pressure

= Average effective overburden pressure adjacent to

the pile shaft
= Angle of internal friction between the soil and the pile.

fs increases with depth but is limited to 100 kN/m2

8/12/2010 FCE 511 172

 Cohesionless soils
Table Typical values of and Ks
Pile material Ks
Loose Dense
Steel 20o 0.5 1
Concrete 0.75φ 1.0 2.0
Wood 0.67 φ 1.5 4.0

8/12/2010 FCE 511 173

 Cohesionless soils
Piling parameters from in-situ tests
An accurate value of Nq depends on the value of angle
of internal friction which at best remains an estimate.

Use of empirical correlations based on the results of

standard penetration and those of the Dutch cone penetration
equipment has been accepted.

8/12/2010 FCE 511 174

 Cohesionless soils
Pilling parameters from standard penetration tests
Driven piles
Type of soil qb (kN/m2) fs (kN/m2)
Sands and gravels Large diameter -
Average diameter -
Non plastic silts Large diameter -
Average diameter -
Bored piles
Any types of soils 0.67

= the average uncorrected SPT value

N = the uncorrected SPT value at base of the pile
D = is the embedded length of the pile in (m).
B = the width or the diameter
8/12/2010 FCE 511 of the pile (m). 175
Use of the Dutch cone test results.
Base resistance

Cr (kN/m2)

Depth
Estimated
(m) depth of
3d the pile
d

The ultimate base resistance is taken as average

value of Cr over a depth of 4d
8/12/2010 FCE 511 176
 Cohesionless soils

Skin friction (fs) values from Dutch cone test results

Type of pile fs kN/m2
Driven piles in dense sand
Driven piles in loose sand
Driven piles in non plastic silts

is the average cone resistance along the

embedded length of the pile

8/12/2010 FCE 511 177

 Load capacity by dynamic methods
A relationship exists between the pile capacity and
the driving behavior during the last stages of driving.
The energy from the hammer to the pile is
transformed into useful energy as shown below.

M = the mass of the hammer

g = the acceleration of the hammer
h = the drop the hammer
R = the pile capacity
S = the settlement of the hammer as
result of the drop h
8/12/2010 FCE 511 178
 Load capacity by dynamic methods

Equation is modified to take account of several losses

The main losses of energy occur as a result of sound,
heat, friction and quake.
Losses associated with elastic behavior of the pile and
those associated with the pile head compression

Wh
efWh efeivWh
h

Variation of energy upon falling of hammer on

to a driven pile
8/12/2010 FCE 511 179
 Load capacity by dynamic methods

Permanent +Elastic penetration

(sso + spp) +(sep +ses)
(sso + spp =set =s)
(sep +ses )=c)

(sso+ses) (sso)
(ses)

The penetration of the pile as shown

Permanent ;penetration attributable to the pile and
soil spp and sso . (spp + sso =s).
The elastic penetration sep and ses attributable to the
pile and soil. (sep + ses =c)
 The work done and the pile
8/12/2010
resistance equation can
FCE 511 180
 Load capacity by dynamic methods

R = The ultimate load capacity of the pile

= the overall efficiency factor

8/12/2010 FCE 511 181

 Load capacity by dynamic methods

Elastic comp = c3

Elastic comp = c2

Elastic comp = c1
set = s3

set = s2
set = s1

Pile driving trace of the final stages


. The formulas should be used in the piles
driven in sand and gravel and be calibrated with
a load test
8/12/2010 FCE 511 182
 Load carrying capacity by pile testing
Most reliable of all the methods
Full scale test is carried out on a working pile.
The pile is loaded and a plot of load versus
settlement is recorded.
From the plot the allowable load is computed by
one of the many formulas available from
literature.
Full scale piles are then constructed to the same
specification as the test pile
 It is usual to load the pile to 1.5 times the
design allowable pile load when a working pile is
tested for ascertaining the integrity of the piles
installed.
8/12/2010 FCE 511 183
 Load carrying capacity by pile testing

Kenteledge Reaction beam

Jack Existing
Support
ground level
Test pile

•Load resisted by kentledge

Reaction beam

Existing ground
level
Test Tension
Tension pile
pile
pile
•Load resisted by tension piles
8/12/2010 FCE 511 184
 Load carrying capacity by pile testing
Maintained load test
The load in a series of increments.
Increments are usually equal to 20 to 25percent of
the design working load of the pile.
The subsequent increments are carried out when the
settlement has reduced to less than 0.25mm per hour.
The load is subsequently withdrawn in the same
stages as the loading to trace the unloading curve.

8/12/2010 FCE 511 185

 Load carrying capacity by pile testing

Constant rate of penetration

A constant rate of penetration by a jack in order to
maintain a constant penetration rate
Maintain penetration rates of 1.5mm per minute and
0.75mm per minute in the case of sands and clays
respectively.

8/12/2010 FCE 511 186

 Load carrying capacity by pile testing

Load
Load

Time Settlement
Settlement

Maintained load test results

Ultimate a
load (a)
Penetration =
Ultimate 0.1 pile diameter
b
load (b)
Load
Penetration

8/12/2010
Constant rate penetration
FCE 511
test results 187
 Load carrying capacity by pile testing

The results are plotted on a load settlement

ultimate pile load is taken as the load which
achieves a settlement equal to 10 percent the
The ultimate pile load could also be reached when
the shear failure of the pile soil interface or the pile toe
occurs
The allowable pile load is obtained by dividing the
ultimate load by an appropriate factor of safety. The
factor of safety usually ranges from 1.3 to 2.0
In the case of large diameter piles on rock the
ultimate load depends on the capacity of the concrete.
8/12/2010 FCE 511 188
 Figure 2.13 Negative skin friction

Fill
l-fill
Length of
settling soil=l
l-clay Compressible
clay

8/12/2010 FCE 511 189

 Negative skin friction

Occurs in piles when a force develops between the

pile and the adjoining soil in a direction which increases
the load on the pile and or the pile groups.

When a compressible layer of clay, silt, or mud etc

settles on account of consolidation which may be
initiated by ground water lowering or increase in
overburden pressure.

As clay layer settles, piles are dragged into the soil
by the consolidating soil and the overburden soil.
8/12/2010 FCE 511 190
 Negative skin friction
The friction generated on the perimeter of the pile
due to this dragging is carried by the column instead of
assisting in carrying he pile load.

The effect is to reduce the carrying capacity of the

pile. This is the phenomenon known as negative skin
friction

8/12/2010 FCE 511 191

 Negative skin friction

Fill height = lf
Fill

Compressible
Compressible clay = lc
clay

For cohesive soils fs is can be approximated to

Or fs can be taken as 0.5Cu
For cohesionless soils fs is equal to
8/12/2010 FCE 511 192
 Pile groups
Piles are designed and constructed to in groups
Apile cap is cat on top of the piles. The cap is
usually in contact with the soil on top of the piles.

The bearing capacity of the group is an arithmetic

sum of the piles and that of the cap.
However a pile cap could support up to 60% of the
applied load. If the cap is clear of the ground surface
piles in the group are referred to as free standing piles.

8/12/2010 FCE 511 193

 Pile groups

Bearing capacity of groups

Piles are usually designed in groups of three or more
piles under a column. The minimum under a foundation
wall would be two per typical cross-section.

Typical arrangement of the piles is given on Figure

2.14. In general the ultimate load capacity of the pile
group is not the sum of the loads of the piles in the
group. The ratio of the ultimate load for the group to the
sum of the loads carried by individual piles is the
efficiency factor of the group and depends on the type of
soils, the type of piles and FCEthe
8/12/2010 511
pile spacing. 194
 Pile groups

3 – Pile 4 – Pile 5- Pile

12– Pile

8/12/2010 FCE 511 195

In sand, the group action is complicated by dilatancy
and densification characteristics of the sand. When the
spacing of the piles is less than eight times the pile
diameter, group action takes place

In dense sand the effect of driving piles is to loosen

the sand and hence the angle of internal friction of the
sand in the vicinity of the piles. This results in overall
reduction of the pile bearing capacity. The group
efficiency factor is less than one.

8/12/2010 FCE 511 196

 Groups in sand
In loose sand the effect of driving piles is to increase
the density of the sand. The bearing capacity of the
loose sand will therefore be increased. And efficiency
factor is more than one.

In the case of bored piles in sand the resulting

loosening of sand in the boring operation results in
efficiency factors less than 2/3

 Piles at the centre of a group in sand carry more load

than the piles on the periphery
8/12/2010 FCE 511 197
 piles in clay

The effect of the pile group is to reduce the bearing

capacity of the pile group.

A group is one large block taking friction on the sides

and base resistance over the block base.

In practice the spacing of piles in clay is of the order

of two times the pile diameter to four times the diameter.
The efficiency of the groups range from 0.6 to unity as
the pile spacing increases from two diameters to four
diameters.
8/12/2010 FCE 511 198
 piles in clay
The group ultimate load given by Equation 2.13.

When the pile cap rests on the ground the ultimate

load should be taken as the less of the block capacity or
the sum of the individual piles on the group.

B = The width of the group

L = Length of the base of the group
D = Depth of the group
NC= Bearing capacity factor of the clay
Cs= The average undrained strength of the undisturbed clay
8/12/2010 FCE 511 199
 Settlement group of piles on clay
Assuming that the entire load acts at a depth as an
equivalent raft.

In clays the raft is located at a depth of 2/3 D

where D is the depth of the pile group. The load is at
spread of 1:4 from the underside of the pile cap to allow
for friction transfer. After the assumed depth of the raft
the load is distributed at a spread of 1:2

Immediate settlement and consolidation settlement

can then be estimated for the layers of soil below 2/3D
by application of normal methods.
8/12/2010 FCE 511 200
 Settlement group of piles on sand
Groups in sand the equivalent raft is at a depth of
2/3Db from depth 2/3D. The spread from the perimeter
of the piles is 1:4 followed by a spread of 1:2

The settlement of the underlying sand stratum is

then gotten from application of standard penetration
data and or the cone penetration resistance

8/12/2010 FCE 511 201

 1:4
D 2/3D 2/3D

1:4 2/3Db
1:2 Db
1:2
Position of Position of
equivalent raft equivalent raft

Clay stratum Sand stratum

8/12/2010 FCE 511 202

 Drilled piers
Drilled pier foundations refers All shafts where a
person may enter and work. They are essentially large
bored piles. Excavation is performed by hand or by
machine

In this definition all shafts larger than 750mm

diameter can be referred to as drilled piers.

They find applications where:

Pile vibrations are not acceptable.
Pile members are too small for the loads.
A large bearing end is needed for higher load
capacity
8/12/2010 FCE 511 203
 Drilled piers
The can be drilled through soils which are difficult
to penetrate to install piles

The problem of heaving and vibration is eliminated

Concrete caps are sometimes eliminated since

column may continue to the

8/12/2010 FCE 511 204

 Drilled piers

Rock level

Pier socketed
Straight pier Underreamed
Into Rock
pier

8/12/2010 FCE 511 205

 Caisson Foundations
These are box type structures consisting of many
cells built in, concrete or steel or combination of both.

Built wholly or partly at higher ground and sunk to

final position.

They are used to transmit large loads through water

and soil to firm strata. They are used in large bridges,
shore protection structures.

They are generally used under the following

conditions.
8/12/2010 FCE 511 206
 Caisson Foundations
The soil contains large boulders which would
otherwise obstruct the penetration of piles and or
construction of cast in place piles.
A massive substructure is needed to extend below the
river bend to provide resistance against floating objects
and scour.
Foundation is subjected to very large lateral forces.
Caissons may be divided into three categories

Open caissons
Pneumatic caissons
Box caissons or floating caissons
8/12/2010 FCE 511 207
 Caisson Foundations
Open caissons:
Box open at the top and bottom.
Soil removed from the caisson by grabbing,
dredging from inside the caisson.
Self weight sinks the caisson assisted by
cutting edges of the walls.
When the desired level has been reached
concrete is poured under onto the base of the caisson
by tremie pipe

The bearing capacity of the soil below is

usually determined by normal bearing equations.
8/12/2010 FCE 511 208
 Open caissons
The concrete seal at the bottom is placed as a
plug at the bottom of the caisson but later serves as a
permanent base of the caisson.

Water level
Ground level

Cutting edge

Circular open caisson Box caisson

8/12/2010 FCE 511 209

 Pneumatic caissons
provide an airtight enclosure and water is prevented
from getting into the enclosure

Workers can excavate and pour concrete under dry

conditions. Pneumatic caissons are costly and should be
considered only with the following conditions in mind:

Premium pay because of associated health hazards

Overall safety requirements are high
Much of the effort is towards making the work
environment suitable for the workers

8/12/2010 FCE 511 210

 Pneumatic caissons

Compressed air in
working chamber

8/12/2010 FCE 511 211

 Box caissons
Cast on the ground and then towed to the site and
lowered to a prepared ground. Carefully align on place
and then made stable by placement of ballast.

No new design requirements. Investigate foundation

area and depth and any likely difficulties likely to be
encountered.

After the caisson is in place it may be filled with

either sand concrete or sand. The caisson should be
checked against stability as it is floated to the final
place of the intended foundation.
8/12/2010 FCE 511 212
 Design of caissons
Needed to resist vertical loads including
superstructures, own weight minus buoyancy forces.

 The lateral forces will typically include forces

due to wind, earthquake, earth and water pressures, and
traction from traffic and pressure from current flow.

There are many methods adopted by geotechnical

engineers.
What is needed is stability of the caisson with the
following combination of forces.

8/12/2010 FCE 511 213

 All forces are resolved into a single vertical force
and two horizontal forces in the direction across and
along the caisson.

It has been found out that analysis of the caisson

in a direction transverse to the direction of the axis is
more critical. The three equations of static equilibrium
are solved.
This are:
W = Base reaction + skin friction
Q = Passive pressure created on BF – Passive
pressure on DE – Base friction
Q (H+D) = Moment FCE
8/12/2010 of511all the forces 214
 From structural Q
analysis W H
A

From D
geotechnical F
analysis
D1
O E B C
γD(Kp-Ka) γD(Kp-Ka)

Qmax =Area ABC-Area FEC

Qmax =1/2 γD2 (Kp - Ka)- ½*2* D (Kp - Ka)*D1

Moments about O:
Qmax (H+D)=1/2 γD2 (Kp-Ka)D*1/3- ½*2* D (Kp-Ka)*D*D1*1/3

Therefore D1 and Qmax can be calculated and necessary adjustments

8/12/2010 FCE 511 215
of the caisson are made depending on values of K and K
 Sutong bridge in China

Plate 1 of the Sutong Bridge in China (1088 m center span)

Centre span of 1088m, designed in an area of
high winds and likely to be hit with massive
earthquakes

 The foundation strata presented the designers

with particularly difficult task. The soils at the site
consisted of firm to stiff clay extending to 45 metres
below the sea bend.
8/12/2010 FCE 511 216
 Sutong bridge in China
Underlain with a medium to very dense coarse
sands, silty sands and occasional loam layers matrix to a
to of 250 metres below the sea bed where the basement
rock was encountered.

The designed pile groups covered a plan area of

113.8x48.1m. The design consisted of 2.8 and 2.5
diameter piles. Permanent casings were installed to a
depth of 40 metres.

8/12/2010 FCE 511 217

 The overall depth of piles 110 metres. Load carried
by friction since the displacement needed to mobilize
the end bearing is two to three times that needed to
mobilize the skin friction

The tips of the pile shafts were grouted to increase

the bearing capacity of the piles. This procedure
densifies the soil below the shaft and any debris left
during the drilling operations. The increased the pile
capacity end bearing capacity is of the order of 20%.

8/12/2010 FCE 511 218

 The Nyali bridge in Mombasa
This is a pre-stressed concrete bridge founded on
seabed which had coral deposits, sand and clay soils
matrix proved to a depth of 100metres below the sea
bend.
The designers depended on the skin friction for the
centre piers.
The design consisted of 2.0metre diameter shafts
drilled down to depth of 50 metres. On plan the piles
have a rectangular layout of 3x8 piles per pier.

8/12/2010 FCE 511 219

 Introduction to Earth Dams
The procedures taken in the design and
construction of earth dams include:
Thorough pre-design and preconstruction
investigation of the dam foundation conditions and of
the construction materials and design of dams.
Application of engineering skills and techniques
to design
Carefully planned and controlled construction
Carefully designed and installed
instrumentation and monitoring of the completed
dams

8/12/2010 FCE 511 220

 Earth dams

Carefully designed and constructional dams are

in excess of three hundred meters high. Our own
Thika dam which supplies the Nairobi residents with
water rises some sixty three meters above its
foundation.

8/12/2010 FCE 511 221

 Causes earth dam failures
Cause of Failure % Type of failure

Overtopping 30 Hydrological

Seepage effects (piping, 25 Geotechnical

sloughing etc)
Conduit leakage 13 Geotechnical/Structural
Slope slides 15 Geotechnical
Miscellaneous 7 General
Damage to slope 5 Maintenance
Unknown causes 5 General

8/12/2010 FCE 511 222

 Earth dams
The design and construction techniques covered
in this chapter are applicable to all dams.
However the design and construction of small
dams in Kenya is well covered in the manual prepared
by Ministry of Water (1985). Small dams are those
whose height does not exceed 15 metres and or its
impounded volume does not exceed one million cubic
meters
The procedures covered in this chapter are
inappropriate for the design and construction of dam
materials presenting the followings characteristics

8/12/2010 FCE 511 223

 Earth dams
Extremely soft, or dispersive or materials with high
plasticity

Exceedingly pervious foundations

Exceedingly fractured foundations

These conditions require specialized testing and

analysis of the presenting conditions in order to arrive at
an appropriate design

8/12/2010 FCE 511 224

 Selection of type of earth dam

The layers are well bonded into one another to

achieve the necessary requirements of the
particular layer.

The materials are borrowed from borrow pits

and from the reservoir area of the dam.

Earth dams fall into three categories namely,

diaphragm, homogenous and zoned

8/12/2010 FCE 511 225

 Diaphragm types
This type of dam is constructed with pervious
materials namely sands, gravels and or rock. An
impervious diaphragm is constructed to act as the
main barrier to seepage.

The diaphragm is usually made of concrete, or

bitumen.

Or thin compacted earth. In this case the width of

the diaphragm at any depth is either less than three
meters or it thickness at any elevation is less than the
height above that elevation.
8/12/2010 FCE 511 226
 Diaphragm types
All internal diaphragms whether made of rigid
materials like concrete or even compacted earth have
potential of cracking caused by differential movement
of induced during consolidation of the dam
embankment materials, fluctuating water levels or
settling foundations.

Internal concrete diaphragms can not be readily

inspected.

8/12/2010 FCE 511 227

 Earth diaphragms
Require protection with filters, protection
against erosion and wave action. Are protected by
rock fill and rock riprap.

Usually protected from internal erosion by

filters usually in the form of geotextiles

Diaphragms are not readily inspected during

routine or emergency inspections.

If most of the material in a diaphragm dam is

rock, then this type of dam is referred to as a rock
dam discussed below.
8/12/2010 FCE 511 228
 Homogenous types

The material in this type of dam must be

sufficiently impervious to act as the barrier for the
seepage. Because the impervious materials are
inevitably clays which are weak in stability but good as
barrier to the seepage the slopes tend to be rather
flatfish. The usual slopes on the upstream side of the
dams are 1:3.5 to 4 while for the down slope slopes
need slopes of 1:2.5 to 1:3
Inevitably appears on the downstream side at a
height of about 1/3 of the height of the dam.

8/12/2010 FCE 511 229

 Homogenous types
Rock toes and horizontal blankets are usually used
to avoid the seepage breaks on the down slope side of the
dam. Riprap protection is also used on the upstream side
to arrest erosion occasioned by the waves on the
upstream side of the dam.
Drainage and filter layers are designed to meet filter
requirements. Inclined filters in combination with
horizontal filters built with well graded sand and
surrounded by geotextiles have become a normal
practice.
 Because modification of the homogenous dams has
led to successful dams the use of completely homogenous
dams
8/12/2010 is now not allowed. FCE 511 230
 Homogenous types
The homogenous dams are preferred where
other materials of contrasting permeability are
unavailable.
 Alternatively they should be used where
impervious material forming the embankment is
abundant and available principally in the dam area
and within the vicinity of the dam.

8/12/2010 FCE 511 231

 Zoned types

A central core is of impervious material is

franked by more pervious materials.
The permeability of dam embankment materials
increases from the core to the outside franking shells.
The materials enclose support and protect an
internal impervious core. The upstream sections
provide stability during rapid drawdown. The
downstream pervious materials act as drainage to
control the line of seepage. It is usual to place a filter
material between the impervious material and the
downstream pervious materials.

8/12/2010 FCE 511 232

 Zoned types
The impervious inner layers are basically clays
typically the red coffee soils. The pervious layers are
sands, gravels, cobbles, boulders and rocks.
If a variety of soils are available the type of dam
of choice is the zoned dam (Bureau of reclamation
1985). It has inherent advantages of stability and
reduced seepage across the dam wall.

8/12/2010 FCE 511 233

 Design Principles
The dam should be constructed so that a satisfactory
performance at minimum cost is attained.
An earth dam must be stable during all phases of the
construction and the operation of the reservoir. To
accomplish this, following criteria must be met:
The foundation, the embankment,, abutments,
and reservoir sides must be stable and should not
develop unacceptable deformations during
construction or during the usage of the structure
Sufficient seepage control must be ensured to
ensure that excessive piping, instability; sloughing,
material erosion is under control. ing
8/12/2010 FCE 511 234
The reservoir sides should be stable under all
operating conditions to prevent landslides into the
reservoir. It is to be noted that a landslide into the
reservoir could cause large wave to overtop the dam.
Adequately sized spillway which allows design flow
floods to pass without overtopping the embankment.
Free board allowance should be sufficient to prevent
waves from overtopping the dam.
The dam should be provided with camber which
allows settlement of the foundation and the abutment to
take place.
Protection against wave action
 Protection against rainFCEerosion
8/12/2010 511
and animal grazing235
 Foundation design
Foundations must be stable under all
conditions and to offer sufficient resistance to
seepage to prevent loss of water.
Determine the seepage and stability
conditions of foundations in
An appropriate field testing accompanied by
field testing is usually necessary
 for treatment purposes the foundations can
be grouped into Rock foundations, Foundations
of coarse grained materials (sand and gravel)
and Foundations of fine grained materials (silt
and clay)
8/12/2010 FCE 511 236
 Rock foundations

No bearing capacity problems.

Seepage problems which have to be addressed.
Establish faults and any areas of excessive
weathering.
Perform in-situ tests to determine the permeability
of the rock structure.
Excessive permeability leads to uplift pressures,
high water pressures through rock crevices, fissures,
permeable strata, and/or fault planes,

8/12/2010 FCE 511 237

 Grouting
Grout ordinarily consists of cement water
mixture in the ration of 10:1 in the case of rich mix to
0.8:1 in the case of a lean mix. Some additives to the
cement water mix is usually done to improve the
pumping. The most used additive is betonite .
A centerline curtain of grout of holes spaced at
three to six meters is adequate.
 Where large zones of fracture occur below the
dam wall and in the immediate upstream of the dam a
blanket grout on grid is desirable. The depth of the
grouting is usually in the region of 3 to 10 metres.
A blanket grouting of the foundation directly
below the impervious zone
8/12/2010 FCE 511is desirable. 238
 Sand gravel foundations
Generally these foundations have sufficient
strength to adequately support the loads induced by the
embankment and the reservoir.
The main problems of these foundations are under
seepage and subsequent forces exerted by this seepage.
Foundations on looses sands are suspect and
should generally be avoided as the sand has the potential
of collapse under load. These type of foundations
should be avoided or specialized advice sought.

8/12/2010 FCE 511 239

 Sand gravel foundations
Estimate under seepage should be estimated from
values of coefficient of permeability of the strata.
The coefficient of permeability of the strata should
be determined by established methods including pump
out tests, tests conducted by observation of boreholes
when pumping is performed in a test borehole or pump
in tests as described in FCE 311.
The magnitude of the seepage forces should also
be determined by analyzing the flow net of the water
flow under the dam. This topic has been covered in FCE
411.
8/12/2010 FCE 511 240
 Sand gravel foundations
The methods of treatment aim at control of the
under seepage and the control of the subsequent seepage
forces to prevent the undesirable effect of foundation
erosion and piping at the exit of the dam.
Excessive treatment of a detention dam might not
be necessary while treatment of foundation of a water
supply dam might be prudent.
The various treatment techniques are now
presented

8/12/2010 FCE 511 241

 Cutoff Trenches
Where possible this is usually the treatment of choice.
The cutoff should extend down to bedrock or to other
impervious strata.
This treatment ensures no future difficulty will be
experienced in piping and or uplift of the dam

h
d Pervious sand gravel
w
Impervious rock

8/12/2010 FCE 511 242

 Partial cutoff
A partial cutoff that does not go all the way to
the foundation,
It is designed to a proportion of the depth to the
rock or to impermeable layer.
The reduction in area is not proportional to the
reduction in the flow. Thus the reduction cannot be
estimated from the flow equation
The action of the partial cut off is similar to that
of an obstruction of in a pipe.
 Experiments have shown that a 50% cutoff
results in 25% reduction of the seepage while an 80%
cutoff results in 50% reduction in the seepage.
8/12/2010 FCE 511 243
 Sheet piling and Slurry trench
•Sheet piling
An expensive method of cutting of the seepage
through the foundation of an earth dam.
Seepage continues to pass through the sheet pilling
interlocks. Can be used sometimes in conjunction with
the cutoff trenches. The sheet piles cannot be
performed in cobbles and boulders

•Slurry trench
This is a trench excavated and filled with concrete
below the impervious layer. The trench is kept in
position by placing bentonite before concreting to form
8/12/2010 FCE 511 244
 Grouting
Improves the stability and reduces the permeability of
pervious foundations under dam walls.
Grouting materials include:
• Cement – water
• Cement – bentonite – water
• Bentonite
Grouting is usually an expensive process and it
should be allowed after extensive testing and
evaluation.

8/12/2010 FCE 511 245

 Upstream blankets and embankment toes
Upstream blankets
These are usually made of same material as the
impervious core material. In effect the path of the
underseepage is increased and hence the loss of water is
reduced.
•Downstream embankment toes
•Reduce uplift pressures at the exit of the dam and
readily permit discharge and prevent piping of the fines
•Convey the discharge
Achieved by
•Extending the downstream zones
•Pervious downstream shells or by use of horizontal
blankets or use of toe drains
8/12/2010 FCE 511 246
 Embankment Design

Embankment slopes
Design parameters include gradation, composition and
corresponding behavior of the soils under different
conditions of saturation and loading.
The stress – strain relationships can be very complex.
Design of earthfill dam embankment depends largely
on successfully designed, constructed and well
performing dams.

The stability of slopes to the embankments to be

checked under the follow conditions.
8/12/2010 FCE 511 247
 The stability of slopes
Stability during and end of construction.
Embankment has not had the time to have the pore water
in the foundations and the embankments drained. The
pore water pressures are highest in the embankment
materials. The strength parameters applicable are the
undrained parameters.

Steady seepage conditions. The core of the dams act

as the water barrier of dam.
The rate of penetration of water will depend on the
permeability of the core material at steady seepage
conditions a phreatic surface will be developed at the
highest
8/12/2010 level in the embankment.
FCE 511 248
 The stability of slopes
The steady seepage conditions is critical for the
downstream slope. Under these conditions the water
has been impounded the seepage has stabilized through
the embankment. The flow net has been established. All
the excess pore water pressures have dissipated.

The slopes of the dam are checked using drained

parameters of the foundations and the embankment
materials

8/12/2010 FCE 511 249

 The stability of slopes

The slopes of the dam are checked using drained

parameters of the foundations and the embankment
materials.
•Rapid drawdown conditions. Stabilizing effects of the
water in the reservoir has been removed on the upstream
slope. The rapid drawdown leaves high pore-water
pressure in the embankment. The upstream slope is
usually in its weakest state. It is to be noted that a
drawdown of up to 40 meters per day is considered as
rapid.
•The upstream slope of the dam is checked using
drained
8/12/2010
parameters of FCEthe
511
foundations and the 250
 Stability under severe seismic conditions.
•The above conditions should be subjected to
acceleration of the embankment occasioned by seismic
activities
•Protection against erosion.
•Erosion arising out of the wave action and sloughing as
the level of the water fluctuates. This is mitigated by
use of appropriate upstream protection by use of stone
riprap.
•Erosion a result of the precipitation and made worse by
grazing animals. The usual practice is to fence off the
dam area and to plant grassFCEand
8/12/2010 511
appropriate trees. 251
 •Design factors in stability check
The stability check is usually to ensure that the shear
stresses induced in the embankments are resisted by the
mobilized shear strength. The shear stresses are from
the externally applied loads which include reservoir
weight and earthquake forces. Additionally internally
generated forces from the self weight of embankment

8/12/2010 FCE 511 252

 σ1

σ τ
σ3
θ

External and internal forces produce a compressive

stress along the sliding surface. This mobilizes the
shearing strength which resists shearing along the
surface being checked.

8/12/2010 FCE 511 253

 3.2

With increase in pore water pressure the shear stress

remains the same

Shear strength is reduced by the increase in the

pore water pressure

There is need to understand and taking care of the

changes in the pore water regime
A suitable FOS is applied in
8/12/2010
stability analyses
FCE 511 254
 Compaction
The more saturated the soil is the higher the likely
hood of developing high pore-water pressures.
To minimize the development of high pore-water
pressures it is compact the earthworks just dry of
optimum.
However for low dams it has been found
satisfactory to compact earthworks at MDD and
OMC.
At this moisture content the material is able to
conform to the shape of the foundation and the
abutments.

8/12/2010 FCE 511 255

 Inspection of existing dams
General appearance
•Sagging crest and signs of slope failures
•Wet patches
•Slope protection measures such as Soil erosion –
gullies and looss of riprap etc
Spillway
•Recalculate the adequacy of the spillway. This topic
is covered separately under hydrology
•Check field indicators of adequacy of the spillway –
water marks, blockages etc
•Is the gear control working for mechanical spillway
gates
•Any structural failuresFCEin
8/12/2010 511 the concrete, or cracks 256
 Inspection of existing dams
Gauge house
•Are the instruments in good working order
•Have they been vandalized

Reservoir area
•Assess the siltation
•Assess the conservation measures being undertaken
in the neighborhood of the dam
•What is the state of the fence of the reservoir fence
for the fenced reservoirs?
AOB

8/12/2010 FCE 511 257

 Ndakaini dam
Crest 2045 masl
11000
Full storage level 2041 masl
2030 masl 2.25
3000 1 2025 masl
Draw-off tower 4000
2015 masl 1
3
1.5
1 Downstream shoulder
3000 5
2.25
upstream shoulder 1 1 2005 masl
2000 masl Core

70000
3.5
4000
1
10000 Filter drain
2.75
1
Drainage layers
culvert 2.25
1 1985
intake Drainage blanket 5000 masl
2.2
1
outlet
Original Ground level

Draw-off pipe

70 m deep grout curtain

8/12/2010 FCE 511 258

 Kwa Tabitha Dam, Kitui district Dam

Crest 1101 masl

Gross freeboard 5000 crest protection murram
1500
500

Normal water level ( 1100 masl)

Grassing
3
2300

1 Protective Core 2
gravel 300mm 1
10m stand off pipe Hand placed
Draw off riprap300mm sand filter
pipe Toe drain

5000 1000 Cattle

1000
trough
5000

8/12/2010 FCE 511 259

 Birica Dam, Nyeri district Dam

Crest 2169 masl

Gross freeboard 5000

300mm Protective gravel

1500

Normal water level

2.5
1 2.5
300mm Hand placed riprap 1
5000

2m long stand-off pipe Original ground level

sand filter

7000 8000 15000 8000

8/12/2010 FCE 511 260

 Kwa Kasenga Dam, Machakos district

Crest
7000
Gross freeboard
1500
500

Normal water level

300mm Protective gravel 2.5

7000
3 Homogeneous embankment 1
5000

1 300mm Hand placed riprap

1000
sand filter

4000

1000
5000

8/12/2010 FCE 511 261