SEPTEMBER

2022

TYPES OF
RESEARCH
Classification of Types of Research
 Types of Research
23 TYPES OF RESEARCH

• In this Presentation, you will be able to:

- Identify the 23 types of Research; and

- Learn how to use the 23 types of Research.

2
 THE 23 TYPES OF
RESEARCH

1. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 7. PRIMARY RESEARCH

2. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH 8. SECONDARY RESEARCH
3. EXPERIMENTAL 9. EXPLORATORY RESEARCH
4. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH 10. SURVEY RESEARCH
5. ACTION RESEARCH 11. SURVEY METHODOLOGY
6. BASIC RESEARCH 12. INTERVIEWS

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 THE 23 TYPES OF
RESEARCH

13. OBSERVATION 19. DEDUCTIVE REASONING

14. ETHNOGRAPHY 20. INDEDUCTIVE REASONING
15. SCIENTIFIC METHOD 21. ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
16. CORRELATION 22. LONGITUDINAL STUDY
17. APPLIED SCIENCE 23. CONTENT ANALYSIS
18. CASE STUDY

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 QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
What is Qualitative Research?
-Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data
(e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or
experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or
generate new ideas for research.

-Qualitative research is commonly used in the humanities and social

sciences, in subjects such as anthropology, sociology, education, health
sciences, history, etc.

-Qualitative research is used to understand how people experience the

world. While there are many approaches5 to qualitative research, they tend
to be flexible and focus on retaining rich meaning when interpreting data.
 QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
What is Qualitative Research?

-Common approaches include grounded theory, ethnography, action

research, phenomenological research, and narrative research. They share
some similarities but emphasize different aims and perspectives.

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 QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
Qualitative research methods
Each of the research approaches involve using one or more 
data collection methods. These are some of the most common qualitative
methods:

•Observations: recording what you have seen, heard, or encountered in

detailed field notes.
•Interviews: personally asking people questions in one-on-one
conversations.
•Focus groups: asking questions and generating discussion among a group
of people. 7
•Surveys: distributing questionnaires with open-ended questions.
 QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
Qualitative data analysis
Qualitative data can take the form of texts, photos, videos, and audio.
For example, you might be working with interview transcripts, survey
responses, field notes, or recordings from natural settings.

Most types of qualitative data analysis share the same five steps:
1.Prepare and organize your data. This may mean 
transcribing interviews or typing up field notes.
2.Review and explore your data. Examine the data for patterns or
repeated ideas that emerge.
3.Develop a data coding system. Based on your initial ideas, establish a
set of codes that you can apply to categorize
8 your data.
 QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
Qualitative data analysis
4. Assign codes to the data. For example, qualitative survey analysis may
mean going through each participant’s responses and tagging them with
codes in a spreadsheet. You can create new codes to add to your system as
you go through your data if necessary.
5. Identify recurring themes. Link codes together into cohesive,
overarching themes.

There are several specific approaches to analyzing qualitative data.

Although these methods share similar processes, they emphasize different
concepts.
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 QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
Example of Qualitative
Research
Online grocery shop with a predominantly male audience

Let’s go back to the previous example. You have an online

grocery shop. By nature, it addresses a general audience, but
after you do a demographic analysis you find out that most of
your customers are male.
One good method to determine why women are not buying
from you is to hold one-on-one interviews with potential
customers in the category.

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 QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
Example of Qualitative
Research
Interviewing a sample of potential female customers should
reveal why they don’t find your store appealing. The reasons
could range from not stocking enough products for women to
the fact that you also sell sex toys for example.
Tapping into different market segments will have a positive
impact on your revenue.

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 QUAntITATIVE RESEARCH

What is Quantitative Research?

Quantitative research is a systematic investigation of phenomena by
gathering quantifiable data and performing statistical, mathematical, or
computational techniques. Quantitative research collects information from
existing and potential customers using sampling methods and sending out 
online surveys, online polls, and questionnaires, for example.

The results of which can be depicted in the form of numerical. After

careful understanding of these numbers to predict the future of a product or
service and make changes accordingly.

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 QUAntITATIVE RESEARCH
What is Quantitative Research?
Quantitative outcome research is mostly conducted in the social
sciences using the statistical methods used above to collect quantitative
data from the research study. In this research method, researchers and
statisticians deploy mathematical frameworks and theories that pertain to
the quantity under question.
Quantitative research templates are objective, elaborate, and many
times, even investigational. The results achieved from this research method
are logical, statistical, and unbiased. Data collection happened using a
structured method and was conducted on larger samples that represent the
entire population.

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 QUAntITATIVE RESEARCH
Quantitative Research
Characteristics.
Some distinctive characteristics of quantitative research are:

• Structured tools: Structured tools such as surveys, polls, or questionnaires are used to gather
quantitative data. 
• Sample size: Quantitative research is conducted on a significant sample size that represents the
target market.
• Close-ended questions: Closed-ended questions are created per the objective of the research. 
• Prior studies: Various factors related to the research topic are studied before collecting
feedback from respondents.
• Quantitative data: Usually, quantitative data is represented by tables, charts, graphs, or any
other non-numerical form.

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 QUAntITATIVE RESEARCH
Quantitative Research
Characteristics.
Some examples of quantitative research are:

1. If any organization would like to conduct a customer satisfaction (CSAT) survey, a customer
satisfaction survey template can be used. Through this survey, an organization can collect
quantitative data and metrics on the goodwill of the brand or organization in the mind of the
customer based on multiple parameters such as product quality, pricing, customer experience, etc.
This data can be collected by asking a net promoter score (NPS) question, matrix table questions,
etc. that provide data in the form of numbers that can be analyzed and worked upon.

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 QUAntITATIVE RESEARCH
Quantitative Research
Characteristics.
Some examples of quantitative research are:

2. Another example of quantitative research is an organization that conducts an event, collecting

feedback from the event attendees about the value that they see from the event. By using an 
event survey template, the organization can collect actionable feedback about the satisfaction levels
of customers during various phases of the event such as the sales, pre and post-event, the likelihood
of recommending the organization to their friends and colleagues, hotel preferences for the future
events and other such questions.

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 QUAntITATIVE RESEARCH
Quantitative Research
Characteristics.
There are four different types of quantitative research methods:

 Survey Research;
 Corretional Research;
 Causal-Comparative Research; and
 Experimental

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 EXPERIMENTAL
What is Experimental
Research Experimental research is research conducted with a scientific approach using two sets of
variables. The first set acts as a constant, which you use to measure the differences of the second
set.

Any research conducted under scientifically acceptable conditions uses experimental methods.
The success of experimental studies hinges on researchers confirming the change of a variable is
based solely on the manipulation of the constant variable. The research should establish a notable
cause and effect.

You can conduct experimental research in the following situations:

•Time is a vital factor in establishing a relationship between cause and effect.

•Invariable behavior between cause and effect.
•You wish to understand the importance of cause and effect.
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 EXPERIMENTAL
Types of Experimental Research Design.
The classic experimental design definition is, “The methods used to collect data in experimental
studies.”

There are three primary types of experimental design:

Pre-experimental research design

True experimental research design
Quasi-experimental research design

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 EXPERIMENTAL
The Types of Experimental Research
Design.1. Pre-experimental research design: A group, or various groups, are kept under observation after
implementing factors of cause and effect. You’ll conduct this research to understand whether
further investigation is necessary for these particular groups.

You can break down pre-experimental research furthering three types:

• One-shot Case Study Research Design

• One-group Pretest-posttest Research Design
• Static-group Comparison

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 EXPERIMENTAL
The Types of Experimental Research
Design.2. True experimental research design: True experimental research relies on statistical analysis to
prove or disprove a hypothesis, making it the most accurate form of research. Of the types of
experimental design, only true design can establish a cause-effect relationship within a group. In a
true experiment, three factors need to be satisfied:

• There is a Control Group, which won’t be subject to changes, and an Experimental Group,
which will experience the changed variables.
• A variable that can be manipulated by the researcher
• Random distribution

This experimental research method commonly occurs in the physical sciences.

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 EXPERIMENTAL
The Types of Experimental Research
Design.3. Quasi-experimental research design: The word “Quasi” indicates similarity. A quasi-
experimental design is similar to an experimental one, but it is not the same. The difference
between the two is the assignment of a control group. In this research, an independent variable is
manipulated, but the participants of a group are not randomly assigned. Quasi-research is used in
field settings where random assignment is either irrelevant or not required.

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 DESCRIPTIVE
RESEARCH
What is Descriptive Research?
Descriptive research is defined as a research method that describes the characteristics of the
population or phenomenon studied. This descriptive methodology focuses more on the “what” of
the research subject than the “why” of the research subject.

The descriptive research method primarily focuses on describing the nature of a demographic
segment, without focusing on “why” a particular phenomenon occurs. In other words, it “describes”
the subject of the research, without covering “why” it happens.

For example, an apparel brand that wants to understand the fashion purchasing trends among New
York buyers will conduct a demographic survey of this region, gather population data and then
conduct descriptive research on this demographic segment.

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 DESCRIPTIVE
RESEARCH
What is Descriptive Research?
The study will then uncover details on “what is the purchasing pattern of New York buyers,” but
not cover any investigative information about “why” the patterns exist. Because for the apparel
brand trying to break into this market, understanding the nature of their market is the study’s
objective.

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 DESCRIPTIVE
RESEARCH
Characteristics of Descriptive Research.
The term descriptive research then refers to research questions, the design of the study, and data
analysis conducted on that topic. We call it an observational research method because none of the
research study variables are influenced in any capacity.

Some distinctive characteristics of descriptive research are:

• Quantitative research: Descriptive research is a quantitative research method that attempts to

collect quantifiable information for statistical analysis of the population sample.
• Uncontrolled variables: In descriptive research, none of the variables are influenced in any
way. This uses observational methods to conduct the research. Hence, the nature of the variables
or their behavior is not in the hands of the researcher.

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 DESCRIPTIVE
RESEARCH
Characteristics of Descriptive Research.
• Cross-sectional studies: Descriptive research is generally a cross-sectional study where
different sections belonging to the same group are studied.
• The basis for further research: Researchers further research the data collected and analyzed
from descriptive research using different research techniques.

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 DESCRIPTIVE
RESEARCH
Applications of Descriptive
Research
A descriptive research method can be used in multiple ways and for various reasons. Before getting
into any survey, though, the survey goals and survey design are crucial. Despite following these
steps, there is no way to know if one will meet the research outcome. How to use descriptive
research? To understand the end objective of research goals, below are some ways organizations
currently use descriptive research today:

• Define respondent characteristics: The aim of using close-ended questions is to draw concrete

conclusions about the respondents.
• Measure data trends: Researchers measure data trends over time with a descriptive research
design’s statistical capabilities.
• Conduct comparisons: Organizations also use a descriptive research design to understand how
different groups respond to a specific product or service.
• Validate existing conditions: Researchers widely use descriptive research to help ascertain the
research object’s prevailing conditions and underlying patterns.
• Conduct research at different times: The analysis can be conducted at different periods to
ascertain any similarities or differences.
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 DESCRIPTIVE
RESEARCH
Descriptive Research Methods.
There are three distinctive methods to conduct descriptive research. They are:

• Observational method
The observational method is the most effective method to conduct this research, and researchers
make use of both quantitative and qualitative observations.

A quantitative observation is the objective collection of data, which is primarily focused on

numbers and values. It suggests “associated with, of, or depicted in terms of a quantity.” Results of
quantitative observation are derived using statistical and numerical analysis methods. It is simply
the observation of any entity associated with a numeric value such as age, shape, weight, volume,
scale, etc. For example, the researcher can track if current customers will refer to the brand using a
simple Net Promoter Score question.

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 DESCRIPTIVE
RESEARCH
Descriptive Research Methods.
• Case study method
Case studies involve in-depth research and study of individuals or groups. Case studies lead to a
hypothesis and widen a further scope of studying a phenomenon. However, case studies should not
be used to determine cause and effect as they can’t make accurate predictions because there could
be a bias on the researcher’s part. The other reason why case studies are not a reliable way of
conducting descriptive research is that there could be an atypical respondent in the survey.
Describing them leads to weak generalizations and moving away from external validity.

• Survey research
In survey research, respondents answer through surveys or questionnaires or polls. They are a
popular market research tool to collect feedback from respondents. A study to gather useful data
should have the right survey questions. It should be a balanced mix of open-ended questions and
close ended-questions. The survey method can be conducted online or offline, making it the go-to
option for descriptive research where the sample size is enormous.

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 DESCRIPTIVE
RESEARCH
Descriptive Research Example.
•
A specialty food group launching a new range of barbecue rubs would
like to understand what flavors of rubs are favored by different people. To
understand the preferred flavor palette, they conduct this type of research
study using various methods like observational methods in supermarkets.
By also surveying while collecting in-depth demographic information,
offers insights into the preference of different markets. This can also help
tailor make the rubs and spreads to various preferred meats in that
demographic. Conducting this type of research helps the organization
tweak their business model and amplify marketing in core markets.

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 Action research
What is Action Research?

Action research is a strategy that tries to find realistic solutions to

organizations’ difficulties and issues. It is similar to applied research.

Action research is basically learning by doing. First, a problem is

identified, then some actions are taken to address it, then how well the
efforts worked are measured, and if the results are not satisfactory, the
steps are applied again.

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 Action research
What is Action Research?

It can be put into three different groups:

• Positivist: This type of research is also called “classical action research.”

It considers research a social experiment. This research is used to test
theories in the actual world.
• Interpretive: This kind of research is called “contemporary action
research.” It thinks that business reality is socially made, and when
doing this research, it focuses on the details of local and organizational
factors.
• Critical: This is a sort of action research that takes a critical approach to
corporate systems and tries to enhance them.
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 Action research
Stage of Action Research.
All research is about learning new things. Action research develops
knowledge based on investigations in particular and frequently useful
circumstances. It starts with identifying a problem. After that, the research
process is followed by the below stages:
• Plan
• Act
• Observe
• Reflect
• Plan
• Act
• Observe
• Reflect
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 Action research
The Stage of Action Research.

Stage 1: Plan
For an action research project to go well, the researcher needs to plan it
well. After coming up with a research topic or question after a research
study, the first step is to develop an action plan to guide the research
process.
Stage 2: Act
The next step is implementing the plan and gathering data. At this point,
the researcher must select how to collect and organize research data.
Stage 3: Observe
Data observation is vital to any investigation. The action researcher needs
to review the project’s goals and expectations before data observation. This
is the final step before drawing conclusions
34 and taking action.
 Action research
The Stage of Action Research.

Stage 4: Reflect
This step involves applying a prospective solution and observing the
results. It’s essential to see if the possible solution found through research
can solve the problem being studied.

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 Action research
Action Research Example.

Action research initiatives are frequently situation-specific. Still, other

researchers can adapt the techniques. The example is from a
researcher’s (Franklin, 1994) report about a project encouraging
nature tourism in the Caribbean.

In 1991, action research was launched to study how nature tourism

may be implemented on the four Windward Islands in the Caribbean:
St. Lucia, Grenada, Dominica, and St. Vincent.

For environmental protection, a government-led action study

determined that the consultation process needs to involve numerous
stakeholders, including commercial36enterprises.
 Action research
Action Research Example.

First, two researchers undertook the study and held search

conferences on each island. The search conferences resulted in
suggestions and action plans for local community nature tourism sub-
projects.

Several islands formed advisory groups and launched national

awareness and community projects. Regional project meetings were
held to discuss experiences, self-evaluations, and strategies. Creating a
documentary about a local initiative helped build community. And the
study was a success, leading to a number of changes in the area.

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 BASIC research
What is Basic Research?
Basic Research is a type of research used in the scientific field to
understand and extend our knowledge about a specific phenomenon or
field. It is also accepted as pure investigation or fundamental research.

This type of research contributes to the intellectual body of knowledge.

Basic research is concerned with the generalization of a theory in a
branch of knowledge; its purpose is usually to generate data that
confirm or refute the initial thesis of the study.

It can also be called foundational research; many things get built on

this foundation, and more practical applications are made.
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 BASIC research

Basic Research Examples.

There can be many examples of basic research; here are some of them:

• A study of how stress affects labor productivity.

• Studying the best factors of pricing strategies.
• Understand the client’s level of satisfaction before certain
interactions with the company providing solutions.
• The understanding of the leadership style of a particular company.

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 BASIC research
How to do Basic Research?
This process follows the same steps as a standard research methodology.
The most crucial point is to define a thesis or theory that involves a
perfectly defined case study; this can be a phenomenon or a problem
observed in a particular place.

There are many types of research, such as longitudinal studies,

observational research, and exploratory studies. So the first thing you
should do is determine if you can obtain the desired result with research or
if it is better to opt for another type of research.

Once you have determined your research methodology, the data collection
process begins, also depending on your type of study; sometimes, you can
collect the data passively through observation
40 or experimentation. On other
occasions, intervene directly and collect quantitative information with tools
 Exploratory research
What is Exploratory
Research?
Exploratory research is defined as a research used to
investigate a problem which is not clearly defined. It is
conducted to have a better understanding of the existing
problem, but will not provide conclusive results. For
such a research, a researcher starts with a general idea
and uses this research as a medium to identify issues,
that can be the focus for future research. An important
aspect here is that the researcher should be willing to
change his/her direction subject to the revelation of new
data or insight. Such a research is usually carried out
when the problem is at a preliminary stage. It is often
referred to as grounded theory41
approach or interpretive
research as it used to answer questions like what, why
 Exploratory research
What is Exploratory
Research?
For example: Consider a scenario where a juice bar owner feels that
increasing the variety of juices will enable increase in customers,
however he is not sure and needs more information. The owner intends
to carry out an exploratory research to find out and hence decides to do
an exploratory research to find out if expanding their juices selection
will enable him to get more customers of if there is a better idea.

Another example of exploratory research is a podcast survey template

that can be used to collect feedback about the podcast consumption
metrics both from existing listeners as well as other podcast listeners
that are currently not subscribed to this channel. This helps the author
of the podcast create curated content that will gain a larger audience.
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 Exploratory research
Types and Methodologies of
Exploratory Research

While it may sound a little difficult to research something that has very
little information about it, there are several methods which can help a
researcher figure out the best research design, data collection methods
 and choice of subjects. There are two ways in which research can be
conducted namely primary and secondary. Under these two types, there
are multiple methods which can used by a researcher. The data gathered
from these research can be qualitative or quantitative. Some of the most
widely used research designs including:
• Primary Research; and
• Secondary Research
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 Exploratory research
How to conduct Exploratory Research?

• Identify the problem: A researcher identifies the subject of research

and the problem is addressed by carrying out multiple methods to
answer the questions.
• Create the hypothesis: When the researcher has found out that there
are no prior studies and the problem is not precisely resolved, the
researcher will create a hypothesis based on the questions obtained
while identifying the problem.
• Further research: Once the data has been obtained, the researcher will
continue his study through descriptive investigation. Qualitative
methods are used to further study the subject in detail and find out if the
information is true or not.
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 Exploratory research
Characteristics of Exploratory
Research. Characteristics of Exploratory research:
• They are not structured studies
• It is usually low cost, interactive and open ended.
• It will enable a researcher answer questions like what is the
problem? What is the purpose of the study? And what topics
could be studied?
• To carry out exploratory research, generally there is no prior research
done or the existing ones do not answer the problem precisely
enough.
• It is a time consuming research and it needs patience and has risks
associated with it.
• The researcher will have to go through all the information available
for the particular study he is doing.
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 Exploratory research
Characteristics of Exploratory
Research. • There are no set of rules to carry out the research per se, as they are
flexible, broad and scattered.
• The research needs to have importance or value. If the problem is not
important in the industry the research carried out is ineffective.
• The research should also have a few theories which can support its
findings as that will make it easier for the researcher to assess it and
move ahead in his study
• Such a research usually produces qualitative data, however in certain
cases quantitative data can be generalized for a larger sample through
use of surveys and experiments.

46
 Exploratory research
Why Exploratory Research is
Important? Because Exploratory Research is carried out when a topic needs to be
understood in depth, especially if it hasn’t been done before. The goal
of such a research is to explore the problem and around it and not
actually derive a conclusion from it. Such kind of research will enable a
researcher to set a strong foundation for exploring his ideas, choosing
the right research design and finding variables that actually are
important for the analysis. Most importantly, such a research can help
organizations or researchers save up a lot of time and resources, as it
will enable the researcher to know if it worth pursuing.

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 Primary research
What is Primary Research?

Primary research is defined as a methodology used by researchers to

collect data directly, rather than depending on data collected from
previously done research. Technically, they “own” the data. Primary
research is solely carried out to address a certain problem, which requires
in-depth analysis.

Businesses or organizations can themselves conduct primary research or

can employ a third party to conduct research on their behalf. One major
advantage of primary research is, this type of research is “pinpointed”,
research is carried around only a specific issue or problem and all the focus
is directed to obtaining related solutions.
48
 Primary research
What is Primary Research?

Businesses or organizations can themselves conduct primary research or

can employ a third party to conduct research on their behalf. One major
advantage of primary research is, this type of research is “pinpointed”,
research is carried around only a specific issue or problem and all the focus
is directed to obtaining related solutions.
For example, a brand is about to launch a new model of mobile phone and
wants to conduct  research about the looks and features mobile phone they
are soon going to introduce. Organizations can select a qualified sample of
respondents that closely resembles the population and conduct primary
research with them, to know their opinions. Based on this research, the
brand can now think of probable solutions to make necessary changes in
the looks and features of mobile phones.49
 Primary research
Primary Research Methods.

In this technology-driven world, meaningful data is more valuable than

gold. Organizations or businesses need highly validated data to make
informed decisions. This is the very reason why many companies are
proactive to gather their own data so that the authenticity of data is
maintained and they get first-hand data without any alterations.
Here are some of the primary research methods organizations or
businesses use to collect data:

1. Interviews (telephonic or face-to-face): Conducting interviews is a

qualitative research method to collect data and has been a popular
method for ages.
2. Online surveys: Once conducted with
50 pen and paper, surveys have
come a long way since then.
 Primary research
Primary Research Methods.

3. Focus groups: This popular research technique is used to collect data

from a small group of people, usually restricted to 6-10.
4. Observations: In this primary research method, there is no direct
interaction between researcher and person/consumer being observed.
Researcher observes the reactions of a subject and makes notes.

51
 secondary research
What is Secondary Research?

Secondary research or desk research is a research method that involves

using already existing data. Existing data is summarized and collated to
increase the overall effectiveness of research.

Secondary research includes research material published in research reports

and similar documents. These documents can be made available by public
libraries, websites, data obtained from already filled in surveys etc. Some
government and non-government agencies also store data, that can be used
for research purposes and can be retrieved from them.

Secondary research is much more cost-effective than primary research, as

it makes use of already existing data, unlike
52
primary research where data is
collected first hand by organizations or businesses or they can employ a
 secondary research
Secondary Research Methods.

Secondary research is cost effective and that’s one of the reasons that
makes it a popular choice among a lot of businesses and organizations. Not
every organization is able to pay huge sum of money to conduct research
and gather data. So, rightly secondary research is also termed as “desk
research”, as data can be retrieved from sitting behind a desk.

The following are popularly used secondary research methods and

examples:
1. Data available on the internet: One of the most popular ways of
collecting secondary data is using the internet. Data is readily available
on the internet and can be downloaded at the click of a button.
2. Government and nongovernment53agencies: Data for secondary
research can also be collected from some government and non-
 secondary research
Secondary Research Methods.

3. Public libraries: Public libraries are another good source to search for
data for this research. Public libraries have copies of important research
that were conducted earlier. They are a storehouse of important
information and documents from which information can be extracted.
4. Educational Institutions: The importance of collecting data from
educational institutions for the secondary research is often overlooked.
Colleges and Universities.
5. Commercial information sources: Local newspapers, journals,
magazines, radio and TV stations are a great source to obtain data for
secondary research. These commercial information sources have first-
hand information on economic developments, political agenda, market
research, demographic segmentation54and similar subjects.
 secondary research
How to Conduct Secondary
Research?
Here are the steps involved in conducting secondary research:

1. Identify the topic of research: Before beginning secondary research,

identify the topic that needs research. Once that’s done, list down the
research attributes and their purpose.

2. Identify research sources: Next, narrow down the information sources

that will provide the most relevant data and information applicable to your
research.

3. Collect existing data: Once the data collection sources are narrowed
down, check for any previous data that is available which is closely related
to the topic. Data related to research can55be obtained from various sources
 secondary research
How to Conduct Secondary
Research?
4. Combine and compare: Once data is collected, combine and compare
the data for any duplication and assemble data into a usable format. Make
sure to collect data from authentic sources. Incorrect data can hamper
research severely.

5. Analyze data: Analyze data that is collected and identify if all questions
are answered. If not, repeat the process if there is a need to dwell further
into actionable insights.

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 The differences
Key Differences between Primary Research
and Secondary Research
Primary Research Secondary Research

Research is conducted first hand to obtain data. Researcher “owns”

Research is based on data collected from previous researches.
the data collected.

Secondary research is based on tried and tested data which is previously

Primary research is based on raw data.
analyzed and filtered.

The data collected fits the needs of a researcher, it is customized.

Data is collected based on the absolute needs of organizations or Data may or may not be according to the requirement of a researcher.
businesses.

Researcher is deeply involved in research to collect data in primary As opposed to primary research, secondary research is fast and easy. It
research. aims at gaining a broader understanding of subject matter.

Primary research is an expensive process and consumes a lot of time Secondary research is a quick process as data is already available.
to collect and analyze data. Researcher should know where to explore to get most appropriate data.

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 Survey research
What is Survey Research?

Survey Research is defined as the process of conducting research

using surveys that researchers send to survey respondents. The data
collected from surveys is then statistically analyzed to draw
meaningful research conclusions.

In the 21st century, every organization’s eager to understand what

their customers think about their products or services and make better
business decisions. Researchers can conduct research in multiple
ways, but surveys are proven to be one of the most effective and
trustworthy research methods. An online survey is a method for
extracting information about a significant business matter from an
individual or a group of individuals. It consists of structured survey
58
questions that motivate the participants to respond.
 Survey research
What is Survey Research?
Creditable survey research can give these businesses access to a vast
information bank. Organizations in media, other companies, and even
governments rely on survey research to obtain accurate data.
The traditional definition of survey research is a quantitative method
for collecting information from a pool of respondents by asking
multiple survey questions. This research type includes the
recruitment of individuals, collection, and analysis of data. It’s useful
for researchers who aim at communicating new features or trends to
their respondents.
Generally, it’s the primary step towards obtaining quick information
about mainstream topics and conducting more rigorous and detailed
quantitative research methods like surveys/polls or qualitative
research methods like focus groups/on-call
59
interviews can follow.
There are many situations where researchers can conduct research
 Survey Methodology
What is Survey Method?
A survey method is a process, tool, or technique that you can use to
gather information in research by asking questions to a predefined
group of people. Typically, it facilitates the exchange of information
between the research participants and the person or organization
carrying out the research.

Survey methods can be qualitative or quantitative depending on the

type of research and the type of data you want to gather in the end.
For instance, you can choose to create and administer an online
survey with Formplus that allows you to collect statistical
information from respondents. For qualitative research, you can
conduct a face-to-face interview or organize a focus group.
60
 Survey Methodology
Types of Survey Methods.
1. Interviews   
-An interview is a survey research method where the researcher
facilitates some sort of conversation with the research participant to
gather useful information about the research subject.
2. Surveys
-A survey is a data collection tool that lists a set of structured
questions to which respondents provide answers based on their
knowledge and experiences.
3. Observation
Just as the name suggests, observation is a method of gathering data
by paying attention to the actions and behaviors of the research
subjects as they interact in their environment.
4. Focus Groups
61
A focus group is an open conversation with a small number of
 iNTERVIEW
What is Interview in S
Research?
An interview is a qualitative research method that relies on
asking questions in order to collect data. Interviews involve two
or more people, one of whom is the interviewer asking the
questions.

There are several types of interviews, often differentiated by their

level of structure. Structured interviews have predetermined
questions asked in a predetermined order. Unstructured
interviews are more free-flowing, and semi-structured interviews
fall in between.

Interviews are commonly used in62market research, social science,

and ethnographic research.
 interviews
The Four(4) Types of Interviews.
What are those Four Types of Interviews in Research?
These are the four types of Interviews in Research:

• Structured
• Semi-Structured
• Unstructured
• Focus Group

63
 INterviews
Structured Interviews.
Structured interviews have predetermined questions in a set order. They
are often closed-ended, featuring dichotomous (yes/no) or multiple-choice
questions. While open-ended structured interviews exist, they are much less
common. The types of questions asked to make structured interviews a
predominantly quantitative tool.
Asking set questions in a set order can help you see patterns among
responses, and it allows you to easily compare responses between
participants while keeping other factors constant. This can mitigate biases
 and lead to higher reliability and validity. However, structured interviews
can be overly formal, as well as limited in scope and flexibility.
Structured interviews may be a good fit for your research if:
•You feel very comfortable with your topic. This will help you formulate
your questions most effectively.
•You have limited time or resources. Structured interviews are a bit more
straightforward to analyze because of64their closed-ended nature, and can be
a doable undertaking for an individual.
 Interviews
Semi-Structured Interviews.
Semi-structured interviews are a blend of structured and unstructured
interviews. While the interviewer has a general plan for what they want to
ask, the questions do not have to follow a particular phrasing or order.
Semi-structured interviews are often open-ended, allowing for flexibility,
but follow a predetermined thematic framework, giving a sense of order.
For this reason, they are often considered “the best of both worlds.”
However, if the questions differ substantially between participants, it can
be challenging to look for patterns, lessening the generalizability and
validity of your results.
Semi-structured interviews may be a good fit for your research if:
•You have prior interview experience. It’s easier than you think to
accidentally ask a leading question when coming up with questions on the
fly. Overall, spontaneous questions are much more difficult than they may
seem.
•Your research question is exploratory65in nature. The answers you receive
can help guide your future research.
 Interviews
Unstructured Interviews.
An unstructured interview is the most flexible type of interview. The
questions and the order in which they are asked are not set. Instead, the
interview can proceed more spontaneously, based on the participant’s
previous answers.
Unstructured interviews are by definition open-ended. This flexibility can
help you gather detailed information on your topic, while still allowing you
to observe patterns between participants.
However, so much flexibility means that they can be very challenging to
conduct properly. You must be very careful not to ask leading questions, as
biased responses can lead to lower reliability or even invalidate your
research.
Unstructured interviews may be a good fit for your research if:
•You have a solid background in your research topic and have conducted
interviews before.
•Your research question is exploratory66in nature, and you are seeking
descriptive data that will deepen and contextualize your initial hypotheses.
 Interviews
Focus Groups Interviews.
A focus group brings together a group of participants to answer questions
on a topic of interest in a moderated setting. Focus groups are qualitative in
nature and often study the group’s dynamic and body language in addition
to their answers. Responses can guide future research on consumer products
and services, human behavior, or controversial topics.
Focus groups can provide more nuanced and unfiltered feedback than
individual interviews and are easier to organize than experiments or large
surveys. However, their small size leads to low external validity and the
temptation as a researcher to “cherry-pick” responses that fit your
hypotheses.
A focus group may be a good fit for your research if:
•Your research focuses on the dynamics of group discussion or real-time
responses to your topic.
•Your questions are complex and rooted in feelings, opinions, and
67 a “yes” or “no.”
perceptions that cannot be answered with
•Your topic is exploratory in nature, and you are seeking information that
 Interviews
Example of Research Interviews.
Examples of interview questions
Depending on the type of interview you are conducting, your
questions will differ in style, phrasing, and intention. Structured
interview questions are set and precise, while the other types of
interviews allow for more open-endedness and flexibility.

Here are some examples.

Focus
Unstructured
Semi-Structured
group
Structured
•What
DoThink
you
feelings
like
backdogs?
do
to your
dogs
Yes/No
childhood,
bring out inandyou?
tell me about a dog that is very
Do youyou
•If vivid
Whenyes, like
name dogs?
in think
your Yes/No
onememories,
more
attribute
deeply
of
positive
about
dogs that
this,
or negative.
you
whatlike.
experiences
It doesn’t have
wouldtoyou
be
Do you
•If your
say no,
your associate
name
dog,
feelings
but dogs
one the with
attribute
are first
rootedoffeeling:
onein?
dogs happy;
that comes
that you somewhat
to don’t
mind. like. happy; neutral;
somewhat unhappy; unhappy
68
 OBservation
What is Observation in Research?
Watch what I do, not what I say, could be a good lead-in for
Observational Research. People in focus groups or in surveys may
say one thing such as, “I always buy green apples” but perhaps when
observed they buy the less costly apples, or the freshest looking
apples. Observational research allows the researcher to see what their
subjects really do when confronted with various choices or situations.

The term refers to the study of non-experimental situations in which

behavior is observed and recorded. It could also be termed, “what’s
going on or what’s she doing.” The research is classified as non-
experimental because the variables are neither controlled nor
manipulated. The results are both qualitative and quantitative in
nature.
69
 observation
The Types of Observation
There are different types of observational research and they have
their strengths and weaknesses. The technique is used in marketing
and the social sciences. As stated earlier variables are not created or
manipulated. In natural observational research, the researcher is
simply recording what they are seeing in front of them. What their
subjects are doing and how they are interacting. This could be
observing animals in the wild from behind a blind, shoppers in a
grocery store, students in a classroom, or soldiers on the battlefield. 
Another type is participant observation where the researcher is
involved and interacting with the subjects by asking questions
(usually unstructured) taking notes, photographs, drawings, and other
record-keeping tasks. Case studies and archival research are two
other forms of observational research. Case studies usually involve a
70
more in-depth study of an individual, group, or event and can be
 Observation
Strong and Weaknesses of Observational
Research.

The strength of the observational method in market research is that it

is less hypothetical since it captures what people are purchasing as
opposed to what they say they will do or have done. It also allows the
researchers to observe people’s behavior when confronted with actual
displays, and price choices rather than predict their behavior based on
survey or focus group answers. Some of the weaknesses are human
bias since the observer is a human with their own bias. Also, one
cannot know what the subject is thinking, their mid-set, or their
decision-making process. For example, did they choose something
because they were just in a hurry, did they see that display, was cost
not a factor because they are very wealthy? Desired demographics
71
may be difficult to achieve.
 ethnography
What is Ethnography?
Ethnography is a type of qualitative research that involves
immersing yourself in a particular community or organization to
observe their behavior and interactions up close. The word
“ethnography” also refers to the written report of the research that
the ethnographer produces afterwards.

Ethnography is a flexible research method that allows you to gain a

deep understanding of a group’s shared culture, conventions, and
social dynamics. However, it also involves some practical and
ethical challenges.

72
 Ethnography
The Used of Ethnography.
What is ethnography used for?
Ethnographic research originated in the field of anthropology, and it
often involved an anthropologist living with an isolated tribal
community for an extended period of time in order to understand
their culture.

This type of research could sometimes last for years. For example,
Colin M. Turnbull lived with the Mbuti people for three years in
order to write the classic ethnography The Forest People.
Today, ethnography is a common approach in various social science
fields, not just anthropology. It is used not only to study distant or
unfamiliar cultures, but also to study specific communities within the
researcher’s own society.
73
For example, ethnographic research (sometimes called participant
 ethnography
Should you use Ethnography in your
Research?
If you’re a student who wants to use ethnographic research in your thesis or
dissertation, it’s worth asking yourself whether it’s the right approach:

Could the information you need be collected in another way (e.g. a survey,
interviews)?
How difficult will it be to gain access to the community you want to study?
How exactly will you conduct your research, and over what timespan?
What ethical issues might arise?
If you do decide to do ethnography, it’s generally best to choose a relatively
small and easily accessible group, to ensure that the research is feasible
within a limited timeframe.
74
 Ethnography
Writing up an Ethnography
After observations are concluded, there’s still the task of writing them up into an
ethnography. This entails going through the field notes and formulating a
convincing account of the behaviors and dynamics observed.

The structure of an ethnography

An ethnography can take many different forms: It may be an article, a thesis, or
an entire book, for example.
Ethnographies often do not follow the standard structure of a scientific paper,
though like most academic texts, they should have an introduction and conclusion.
For example, this paper begins by describing the historical background of the
research, then focuses on various themes in turn before concluding.
An ethnography may still use a more traditional structure, however, especially
when used in combination with other research
75 methods. For example, this paper
 follows the standard structure for empirical research: introduction, methods,
 Ethnography
Writing up an Ethnography

The content of an ethnography

The goal of a written ethnography is to provide a rich, authoritative account of the
social setting in which you were embedded—to convince the reader that your
observations and interpretations are representative of reality.
Ethnography tends to take a less impersonal approach than other research
methods. Due to the embedded nature of the work, an ethnography often
necessarily involves discussion of your personal experiences and feelings during
the research.
Example of personal reflection in an ethnography:
During the second week, I became frustrated with my lack of
progress in gaining the confidence of more than just my initial
informants. The staff appeared to distrust me as an outsider…

76
 Ethnography
Writing up an Ethnography
Ethnography is not limited to making observations; it also attempts to explain the
phenomena observed in a structured, narrative way. For this, you may draw on
theory, but also on your direct experience and intuitions, which may well
contradict the assumptions that you brought into the research.

Example of analysis in an ethnography:

Despite the claims of Griffiths (2019), my own observations
indicate that retail workers do not always develop any
particular bond with one another in response to the stresses of
their work. There are several possible reasons for this
discrepancy: It may be that the layout of this particular store
discourages such bond-forming interaction, or that my own
presence was disruptive…
77
 Scientific Method
What is Scientific Mehthod?
The scientific method in research is an experimentation process
used in exploring observations and answering questions. Not all
scientists follow this process because some areas of science are more
straightforward to test than others. For instance, for scientists to
hypothesize how dinosaurs digested their food, they cannot fast-
forward time and run hypotheses to come to logical conclusions.
There are different versions of scientific research conducted by
scientists, but the goal is the same at the end of the day. This is to
discover the cause and effect of something.
The scientific method in research is iterative, and it follows a series
of steps. New information always causes a scientist to back up and
repeat some steps in the process.
Scientific research helps us understand the world around us better.
Without it, we would be forced to 78 rely on intuition. Unlike intuition
 Scientific Method
Steps in Scientific Method.
The scientific method follows six necessary steps to test ideas. The steps
are as follows:
1.Observe a phenomenon and come up with a question on it. This is
where the scientific method starts, and you ask questions about something
you observe. 
2.Form a hypothesis that will answer your question or suggest a
possible solution. Instead of starting from scratch, you can do background
research and be savvy to not repeat the same mistakes in the past. After
your research, you can then form a hypothesis which is an educated guess
or attempt to answer your question.
3.Experiment to test your hypothesis. After the hypothesis, experiment,
because intuition is unacceptable in scientific circles. This is to assert
whether your prediction is true or false. During your investigation, change
only one variable at a time and keep all the other conditions the same. 
4.Analyze the results. If your hypothesis
79 is correct, find more evidence and
counter-evidence. If your premise is false, develop a new hypothesis and
 Scientific method
Steps in Scientific Method.
After completing the experiment, collect the results, come up with a
conclusion, and see if it supports your hypothesis. Sometimes scientists find
that their hypotheses were unfounded, and in such cases, they have to go
back to the experiment and come up with a new inference and prediction
based on the latest information learned.
1.Communicate results. The Scientific method is not complete until you
communicate your results to others on a display board or final report.
Scientists do it by publishing their findings in journals or a poster. They can
even present their findings in seminars or talks. The readers will then
determine whether they support your results or not.
The scientific method is a cycle. It is iterative but makes no move in a
straight line. The processes are always repeated if the hypothesis is wrong.
If the theory is right, other scientists can still repeat the process to verify the
findings. The process is, therefore, never-ending and refined by the
iterations. 80
If you are having difficulties conducting a research activity or any scientific
 Scientific Method
Principle of Scientific Method.
The scientific method is built on two principles: a theory and a
hypothesis. A theory is an organized set of ideas that serves as an
explanation for a specific phenomenon. A theory is often used when
making predictions on observations. On the other hand, a hypothesis
refers to predictions that can be tested and are arrived at logically. A
hypothesis is fundamental as it bridges the gap between ideas and the
real world. 
The other fundamental principles in the scientific method include
predictability, verifiability, and fairness.
Predictability in the scientific method implies that the theory we
come up with should help us make predictions on future events. The
more precise the predictions are, the stronger the idea is.
81
 Scientific Method
Principle of Scientific Method.
Verifiability means that the results were not accidental, but other
researchers can replicate the results. Researchers should, therefore,
clearly document their methods and structure the experiments for
dependable products.
Fairness is when a researcher must consider all the data necessary
when analyzing a hypothesis. A researcher cannot discard some data
and focus specifically on some data supporting or negating a premise.
A researcher should take into account all data even if it invalidates
one’s hypothesis.

82
 Scientific method
Application of Scientific Method
Application of the Scientific Method

An excellent scientific conclusion ought to be falsifiable. It should be

open to criticism and can be disproved. However, if we have
empirical observations that cannot be disputed, we cannot apply the
scientific method in that study.

The ability to test a hypothesis and determine the practicability under

different circumstances shows the extent to which we can apply the
scientific method in research.

83
 Scientific Method
The Importance of Scientific Method.
Modern Scientific research separates the inquiries of the mind from
factual conclusions. Most of the aspects in science were once
subjective and could not be directly measured. Scientists relied on
self-reporting and observations only. The scientific method’s dawn
made it possible to analyze different kinds of data and standardize the
approach used.
This method allows data to be replicated and verified by different
scientists under different circumstances. By repeating the findings,
scientists can broaden the theories and reduce margins of error.
Theories can be further tested to give further understanding instead of
just being conjectures.Good research is ethical as it acts as a method
of preservation of hallmarks of humanity in academia. 
The question of success in science has been the core question since
the dawn of modern science. The methods
84 used by practitioners have
dramatically changed and fine-grained the contextual limitations
 Correlation Research
What is Correlation?
Correlational research is a type of non-experimental research
method in which a researcher measures two variables and
understands and assesses the statistical relationship between them
with no influence from any extraneous variable.

Our minds can do some brilliant things. For example, it can

memorize the jingle of a pizza truck. The louder the jingle, the closer
the pizza truck is to us. Who taught us that? Nobody! We relied on
our understanding and came to a conclusion. We don’t stop there, do
we? If there are multiple pizza trucks in the area and each one has a
different jingle, we would memorize it all and relate the jingle to its
pizza truck.
This is what correlational research precisely is, establishing a
relationship between two variables,85 “jingle” and “distance of the
truck” in this particular example. The correlational study looks for
 Corretional research
Types of Corretional Research.
Mainly three types of correlational research have been identified:

1. Positive correlation: A positive relationship between two

variables is when an increase in one variable leads to a rise in the
other variable. A decrease in one variable will see a reduction in the
other variable. For example, the amount of money a person has might
positively correlate with the number of cars the person owns.

2. Negative correlation: A negative correlation is quite literally the

opposite of a positive relationship. If there is an increase in one
variable, the second variable will show a decrease and vice versa.

86
 Corretional research
Types of Corretional Research.
For example, being educated might negatively correlate with the
crime rate when an increase in one variable leads to a decrease in
another and vice versa. If a country’s education level is improved, it
can lower crime rates. Please note that this doesn’t mean that lack of
education leads to crimes. It only means that a lack of education and
crime is believed to have a common reason – poverty.

3. No correlation: There is no correlation between the two variables

in this third type. A change in one variable may not necessarily see a
difference in the other variable. For example, being a millionaire and
happiness are not correlated. An increase in money doesn’t lead to
happiness.
87
 Corretional research
Characteristics of Corretional Research.
Correlational research has three main characteristics. They are:
• Non-experimental: Correlational study is non-experimental. It means that
researchers need not manipulate variables with a scientific methodology to
either agree or disagree with a hypothesis. The researcher only measures and
observes the relationship between the variables without altering them or
subjecting them to external conditioning.
• Backward-looking: Correlational research only looks back at historical
data and observes events in the past. Researchers use it to measure and spot
historical patterns between two variables. A correlational study may show a
positive relationship between two variables, but this can change in the future.
• Dynamic: The patterns between two variables from correlational research
are never constant and are always changing. Two variables having negative
correlation research in the past can have
88 a positive correlation relationship in
the future due to various factors.
 Corretional Research
Data Collection Of Corretional Research.
The distinctive feature of correlational research is that the researcher
can’t manipulate either of the variable involved. It doesn’t matter how or
where the variables are measured. A researcher could observe participants
in a closed environment or a public setting.

Researchers use two data collection methods to collect information in

correlational research.
What are the two Data Collection?
-Naturalistic Observation
-Archival Data

89
 Corretional Research
Naturalistic Observation.
Naturalistic observation is a way of data collection in which people’s 
behavioral targeting is observed in their natural environment, in which they
typically exist. This method is a type of field research. It could mean a
researcher might be observing people in a grocery store, at the cinema,
playground, or in similar places.

Researchers who are usually involved in this type of data collection make
observations as unobtrusively as possible so that the participants involved in the
study are not aware that they are being observed else they might deviate from
being their natural selves.

Ethically this method is acceptable if the participants remain anonymous, and if

the study is conducted in a public setting, a place where people would not
normally expect complete privacy. As mentioned previously, taking an example
of the grocery store where people can be 90 observed while collecting an item from
the aisle and putting it in the shopping bags. This is ethically acceptable, which
 Corretional Research
Archival Data.
Another approach to correlational data is the use of archival data.
Archival information is the data that has been previously collected by
doing similar kinds of research. Archival data is usually made available
through primary research.

In contrast to naturalistic observation, the information collected through

archived data can be pretty straightforward. For example, counting the
number of people named Richard in the various states of America based
on social security records is relatively short.

Use the correlational research method to conduct a correlational study

and measure the statistical relationship between two variables. Uncover
the insights that matter the most. 91
 Applied Science
What is Applied Science?
Applied research is a type of research design that seeks to solve a
specific problem or provide innovative solutions to issues affecting an
individual, group or society. It is often referred to as a scientific method
of inquiry or contractual research because it involves the practical
application of scientific methods to everyday problems. 
When conducting applied research, the researcher takes extra care to
identify a problem, develop a research hypothesis and goes ahead to test
these hypotheses via an experiment. In many cases, this research
approach employs empirical methods in order to solve practical
problems. 
Applied research is sometimes considered to be a non-systematic inquiry
 because  of its direct approach in  seeking
92 a solution to a problem. It is
typically a follow-up research design that further investigates the findings
 Applied Science
Example of Applied Science.
Examples of Applied Research 
Applied research is relevant in different fields of study; especially science and social
science-related fields. Examples of applied research can be seen in medicine, education,
business, engineering, psychology and health, and these would be further explicated
below. 

93
 Applied science
3 Types of Applied Science.
There are 3 types of applied research. These are evaluation research, research and
development, and action research.
 Evaluation Research
Evaluation research is a type of applied research that analyses existing information
about a research subject to arrive at objective research outcomes or reach informed
decisions. This type of applied research is mostly applied in business contexts, for
example, an organisation may adopt evaluation research to determine how to cut down 
overhead costs. 
 Research and Development
Research and development is a type of applied research that is focused on developing
new products and services based on the needs of target markets. It focuses on gathering
information about marketing needs and finding ways to improve on an existing product
or create new products that satisfy the identified needs. 
 Action Research 94
Action research is a type of applied research that is set on providing practical solutions
 Applied Science
Method of Applied Science.
Qualitative and quantitative data collection methods are used in applied
research to gather empirical evidence that is further subjected to
experimentation in order to arrive at valid research outcomes. The
following are data collection methods in applied research:
 Interviews
An interview is a qualitative method of data collection that involves
having a one-on-one interaction or discussion with the research subjects
in order to gather relevant information that can serve as empirical data. It
can be conducted with the use of an audio recorder, digital camera or
camcorder. 
Even though it is time-consuming and expensive, interviews allow the
95
researcher to gather the most relevant data which gives him or her in-
 Applied Science
Method of Applied Science.
 Surveys/Questionnaires
A questionnaire is an instrument that is typically used for 
quantitative data gathering. It outlines a series of questions relating to the
research context and requires the research subjects to choose or provide
responses that reflect their knowledge and experiences.
There are different types of questions that can be contained in a
questionnaire including rating scale questions, close and 
open-ended questions and fixed alternatives.

96
 Case study
What is Case Study?
A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person,
group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are
commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.
A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods, but 
quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for 
describing, comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of
a research problem.

97
 Case study
Case Study Example
Case study examples
Research question Case study
What are the ecological effects Case study of wolf
of wolf reintroduction? reintroduction in Yellowstone
National Park
How do populist politicians Case studies of Hungarian prime
use narratives about history to minister Viktor Orbán and US
gain support? president Donald Trump
How can teachers implement Case study of a local school that
active learning strategies in promotes active learning
mixed-level classrooms?
98
 Deductive reasoning
What is Deductive Reasoning?
Deductive reasoning is a logical approach where you progress from
general ideas to specific conclusions. It’s often contrasted with inductive
reasoning, where you start with specific observations and form general
conclusions.
Deductive reasoning is also called deductive logic or top-down
reasoning. n
In deductive reasoning, you’ll often make an argument for a certain idea.
You make an inference, or come to a conclusion, by applying different
premises.
A premise is a generally accepted idea, fact, or rule, and it’s a statement
that lays the groundwork for a theory or general idea. Conclusions are
statements supported by premises. 99
 Deductive reasoning
Deductive Logical Arguments.
In a simple deductive logic argument, you’ll often begin with a premise, and add
another premise. Then, you form a conclusion based on these two premises. This format
is called “premise-premise-conclusion.” (PPC)
Example:
Premise All insects have exactly six legs.
Premise Spiders have eight legs.
Conclusion Therefore, spiders are not insects.
Premise Blue litmus paper turns red in the presence
of acid.
Premise The blue litmus paper turned red after I
dropped some liquid on it.
Conclusion Therefore, the liquid is acidic.
100
 Deductive reasoning
The Two (2) Criteria in Deductive Reasoning.
Validity and soundness are two criteria for assessing deductive reasoning arguments.
Validity
In this context, validity is about the way the premises relate to each other and the
conclusion. This is a different concept from research validity.
An argument is valid if the premises logically support and relate to the conclusion. But
the premises don’t need to be true for an argument to be valid.
Examples: Valid (but untrue) deductive
arguments Examples: Invalid deductive arguments.
Example 1 Example 1

1. If there’s a rainbow, flights get 4. All leopards have spots.

canceled. 2. My pet gecko has spots.
2. There is a rainbow now. 3. Therefore, my pet gecko is a leopard.
3. Therefore, flights are canceled. 101
 Deductive reasoning
The Two (2) Criteria in Deductive Reasoning.

Soundness
An argument is sound only if it’s valid and the premises are true. All
invalid arguments are unsound.
If you begin with true premises and a valid argument, you’re bound to
come to a true conclusion.
Examples: Sound deductive reasoningExample 1
1. Flights get canceled when there are extreme weather conditions.
2. There are extreme weather conditions right now.
3. Therefore, flights are canceled.

102
 Deductive reasoning
Applying Deductive Reasoning in Research
Deductive reasoning is commonly used in scientific research, and it’s especially associated with 
quantitative research.
In research, you might have come across something called the hypothetico-deductive method.
It’s the scientific method of testing hypotheses to check whether your predictions are substantiated
by real-world data.
This method is used for academic as well as non-academic research.
Example: Deductive research problemYou work as an organizational researcher at a large
insurance organization. Currently, the organization is dealing with increasing levels of employee
burnout, and you’re tasked with finding a solution to this problem.
Here are the general steps for deductive research:
1. Select a research problem and create a problem statement.
2. Develop falsifiable hypotheses.
3. Collect your data with appropriate measures.
4. Analyze and test your data. 103
5. Decide whether to reject your null hypothesis.
 Deductive reasoning
Applying Deductive Reasoning in Research
Importantly, your hypotheses should be falsifiable. If they aren’t, you won’t be able to determine
whether your results support them or not.
Example: Deductive research approach you predict that going from a five-day work week to a
four-day work week (without any reduction in pay) will help reduce or prevent burnout by
improving employee well-being.
You formulate your main hypothesis: Switching to a four-day work week will improve employee
well-being. Your null hypothesis states that there’ll be no difference in employee well-being
before and after the change.
You collect data on employee well-being through quantitative surveys on a monthly basis before
and after the change. When analyzing the data, you note a 25% increase in employee well-being
after the change in work week.
Using a statistical test, you find that your results show statistical significance. You reject your null
hypothesis and conclude that your results support your main hypothesis.

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 Indeductive Reasoning
What is Indeductive Reasoning?
Inductive reasoning is a method of drawing conclusions by going from the specific to
the general. It’s usually contrasted with deductive reasoning, where you go from general
information to specific conclusions.
Inductive reasoning is also called inductive logic or bottom-up reasoning. n
Inductive reasoning is a logical approach to making inferences, or conclusions. People
often use inductive reasoning informally in everyday situations.
You may have come across inductive logic examples that come in a set of three
statements. These start with one specific observation, add a general pattern, and end with
a conclusion.

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 Inductive Reasoning
The Formula of Inductive Reasoning.

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 Inductive Reasoning
Examples of Inductive Reasoning.
Stage Example 1 Example 2

Specific observation Nala is an orange cat Baby Jack said his first
and she purrs loudly. word at the age of 12
months.
Pattern recognition Every orange cat I’ve All observed babies say
met purrs loudly. their first word at the
age of 12 months.

General conclusion All orange cats purr All babies say their first
loudly. word at the age of 12
months.
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 Inductive Reasoning
Applying Inductive Reasoning in Research.
In inductive research, you start by making observations or gathering data. Then, you
take a broad view of your data and search for patterns. Finally, you make general
conclusions that you might incorporate into theories.
Example: Inductive reasoning in research you conduct exploratory research on whether
pet behaviors have changed due to work-from-home measures for their owners.
You distribute a survey to pet owners. You ask about the type of animal they have and
any behavioral changes they’ve noticed in their pets since they started working from
home. These data make up your observations.
To analyze your data, you create a procedure to categorize the survey responses so you
can pick up on repeated themes. You notice a pattern: most pets became more needy and
clingy or agitated and aggressive.
Based on your findings, you conclude that almost all pets went through some behavioral
changes due to changes in their owners’ work locations. This is a generalization that you
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can build on to test further research questions.
 Inductive Reasoning
Types of Inductive Reasoning.
There are many different types of inductive reasoning that people use formally or
informally, so we’ll cover just a few in this article:
• Inductive generalization
• Statistical generalization
• Causal reasoning
• Sign reasoning
• Analogical reasoning
Inductive reasoning generalizations can vary from weak to strong, depending on the
number and quality of observations and arguments used.

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 Inductive reasoning
Inductive Generalization
Inductive generalizations use observations about a sample to come to a conclusion
about the population it came from.
Inductive generalizations are also called induction by enumeration.
Example: Inductive generalization
1. The flamingos here are all pink.
2. All flamingos I’ve ever seen are pink.
3. All flamingos must be pink.
Inductive generalizations are evaluated using several criteria:
• Large sample: Your sample should be large for a solid set of observations.
• Random sampling: Probability sampling methods let you generalize your findings.
• Variety: Your observations should be externally valid.
• Counterevidence: Any observations that refute yours falsify your generalization.
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 Inductive Reasoning
Statistical Generalization.
Statistical generalizations use specific numbers to make statements about populations,
while non-statistical generalizations aren’t as specific.
These generalizations are a subtype of inductive generalizations, and they’re also called
statistical syllogisms.
Here’s an example of a statistical generalization contrasted with a non-statistical
generalization. Statistical Non-statistical
Example: Statistical & Non-Statisticl Generalization
Specific observation 73% of students from a sample in a Most students from a sample in a
local university prefer hybrid local university prefer hybrid
learning environments. learning environments.

Inductive generalization 73% of all students in the Most students in the university
university prefer hybrid learning prefer hybrid learning
environments. environments.

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 Inductive Reasoning
Causal Reasoning
Causal reasoning means making cause-and-effect links between different things.
A causal reasoning statement often follows a standard setup:
1. You start with a premise about a correlation (two events that co-occur).
2. You put forward the specific direction of causality or refute any other direction.
3. You conclude with a causal statement about the relationship between two things.
Example: Causal reasoning
1. All of my white clothes turn pink when I put a red cloth in the washing machine with them.
2. My white clothes don’t turn pink when I wash them on their own.
3. Putting colorful clothes with light colors causes the colors to run and stain the light-colored
clothes.
Good causal inferences meet a couple of criteria:
• Direction: The direction of causality should be clear and unambiguous based on your
observations.
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• Strength: There’s ideally a strong relationship between the cause and the effect.
 Inductive Reasoning
Sign Reasoning
Sign reasoning involves making correlational connections between different things.
Using inductive reasoning, you infer a purely correlational relationship where nothing
causes the other thing to occur. Instead, one event may act as a “sign” that another event
will occur or is currently occurring.
Example: Sign reasoning
1. Every time Punxsutawney Phil casts a shadow on Groundhog Day, winter lasts six
more weeks.
2. Punxsutawney Phil doesn’t cause winter to be extended six more weeks.
3. His shadow is a sign that we’ll have six more weeks of wintery weather.
It’s best to be careful when making correlational links between variables. Build your
argument on strong evidence, and eliminate any confounding variables, or you may be
on shaky ground.
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 Inductive Reasoning
Analogical Reasoning
Analogical reasoning means drawing conclusions about something based on its
similarities to another thing. You first link two things together and then conclude that
some attribute of one thing must also hold true for the other thing.
Analogical reasoning can be literal (closely similar) or figurative (abstract), but you’ll
have a much stronger case when you use a literal comparison.
Analogical reasoning is also called comparison reasoning.
Example: Analogical reasoning
1. Humans and laboratory rats are extremely similar biologically, sharing over 90% of
their DNA.
2. Lab rats show promising results when treated with a new drug for managing
Parkinson’s disease.
3. Therefore, humans will also show promising results when treated with the drug.
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 Content analysis
What is Content Analysis?
Content analysis is a research method used to identify patterns in
recorded communication. To conduct content analysis, you
systematically collect data from a set of texts, which can be written,
oral, or visual:

• Books, newspapers and magazines

• Speeches and interviews
• Web content and social media posts
• Photographs and films
Content analysis can be both quantitative (focused on counting and
measuring) and qualitative (focused on interpreting and
understanding). In both types, you categorize or “code” words,
themes, and concepts within the texts and then analyze the results.
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 Content analysis
The use of Content Analysis.
Researchers use content analysis to find out about the purposes,
messages, and effects of communication content. They can also make
inferences about the producers and audience of the texts they
analyze.

Content analysis can be used to quantify the occurrence of certain

words, phrases, subjects, or concepts in a set of historical or
Quantitative content
contemporary analysis example.
texts.
To research the importance of employment issues in
political campaigns, you could analyze campaign
speeches for the frequency of terms such as
unemployment, jobs, and work and use statistical
analysis to find differences over time or between
candidates. 116