Unit 2

Topics to cover under unit 2

1. Observation and survey method
2. Field work plan
3. Administration of surveys
4. Training field investigators
5. Sampling method
6. Sample size.
Research has a wide scope and is applied in
different businesses and industries for different
purposes. Research is entirely based on
information which is extracted from data.

• The term "data" originated from the singular

word called "datum" which literally Datum
means "something given".
Data is a collection of raw and unorganized
facts that has no individual meaning.

When raw data is processed, organised, and

presented in certain structure in such a way,
that it becomes meaningful and useful,
"Information". 
 • Primary data
The data directly collected by the researcher, for
the first time with respect to the problem
under study, is known as primary data.

Primary data is also the first hand data collected

by the researcher for the immediate purpose
of the study.
Primary data is the data that is collected by the
researchers for the purpose of investigation.
This data is original in character and
generated by surveys.

Primary data is the information collected during

the course of experiment in an experimental
research.
Advantages of Primary Data 
Primary data is significant in research due to
following reasons :
1) Reliability : 
As the primary data is collected originally by the
researcher and it is current and accurate, it is
more reliable than secondary data.
2) Variety of Techniques : 
Primary data can be collected through various
techniques. There are numerous tools and
techniques available to record and analyse
primary data such as interviews,
questionnaires, observation, etc. It
allows the researchers to explore effectively in
almost every area where research is possible. 
4) Complete Control over Process : 
Sometimes, organisations ask the researchers to
conduct the research in specific area rather
than in broader perspective.

Collecting the primary data allows the

researchers to collect the data of their
concern and represent it in ways that can
benefit the organisations.
Researchers can also decide the :
 length of study,
 location in which research is to be carried out,
 time duration, etc., as per their requirement
and convenience.
5) Sole Ownership of Information : 
As the information processed from the primary
data is fresh and original, it can be
copyrighted. This way, the researcher
becomes the owner of that information.
He/she can take the benefit of information by
sharing it with organisations. This is not so in
the case of secondary data, as it already
belongs 10 other person or organisation.
5) Sole Ownership of Information : 
As the information processed from the primary
data is fresh and original, it can be
copyrighted. This way, the researcher
becomes the owner of that information.
He/she can take the benefit of information by
sharing it with organisations. This is not so in
the case of secondary data, as it already
belongs 10 other person or organisation.
2) Time Consuming : 
Collecting primary data effectively takes more
time.
 Developing research plan,
 deciding sources of information,
 and selecting the methods of data collection
are time consuming activities.
3) Infeasible Sometime : 
Although, primary data considered to be reliable
source of information, but, sometimes it is
not an easy task to collect the primary data,
as the sources of information may not be in
the reach of researcher or may incur a huge
amount of money.
4) Huge Quantity of Data : 
Sometimes data collected through primary
sources are in huge quantity.
This large volume of data leads confusion about
the accuracy of the Information .

The processing and analysis of the data becomes

complex and cumbersome( bulky) due to
large size.
5) Unwillingness to Answer :
Sometimes participants do not cooperate in
data collection by showing unwillingness to
answer or by giving wrong information. These
factors act as burden in primary data
collection and also reflect biasness in
responses.
 Primary data Vs Secondary data
Basis of Primary data Secondary data
Difference

1) Meaning The data is collected by the When a data, which was earlier
researcher himself for finding the created by some researchers or
solution of a particular problem or organisations for their own
situation, is known as primary data. purposes, is used in current
research for a similar purpose, it
is known as secondary data.

2) Cost The collection of primary data is It is less costly than primary data
costly as it includes several tools collection. The secondary data can
and techniques. be obtained easily, involving zero
  or very less amount of money. It is
collected from some already
available published or
unpublished sources.
Basis of difference Primary data Secondary data

3) Sources It is directly collected from It is collected from some

respondents. already available published or
unpublished sources.

4) 4) Methods The methods used for primary data The methods used for
collection include secondary data
interviews, questionnaires, collection include studying
observations and surveys. and analysing reports,
journals, census, and different
databases.

5) 5) Reliability Primary data is more reliable as it is The reliability of secondary

original and new. data is comparatively less
reliable, as this data belongs
to different problem or
situation.
Basis of difference Primary data Secondary data
6) Scientific Method The selection of primary The selection of secondary
  data is scientific in nature. data is manual. It is selected
It includes forming according to the content of
hypothesis about the the source and the current
problem or situation, research topic.
collecting data,  
and analyzing data to prove
the hypothesis right
or wrong.

7) Precaution Precautions are relatively A lot of precaution is taken in

nominal in collecting the selection of secondary
primary data than data.
secondary data.

8. Form of Data Form of primary data is like

raw which needs to be
processed to get
meaningful information.
Basis of difference Primary data Secondary data
8) Form of Data Form of primary Secondary data are
data is like raw already processed
which needs to be data that needs to be
processed to get analysed and
meaningful studied to use in
information. research study.
9) Accuracy Primary data is The secondary
original and data is not
accurate, as it is completely
developed accurate as it was
according to the developed for some
need. other purpose.
• Basis of Difference
• Primary data
• Secondary data
• 1) Meaning
• The data is collected by the researcher himself for finding the solution
of a particular problem or situation, is known as primary data.
• When a data, which was earlier created by some researchers or
organisations for their own purposes, is used in current research for a
similar purpose, it is known as secondary data.
• 2) Cost
• The collection of primary data is costly as it includes several tools
and techniques.
•  

• It is less costly than primary data collection. The secondary data can be
obtained easily, involving zero or very less amount of money. It is
collected from some already available published or unpublished
sources.
Ex 2:
A manufacturer does a survey of the potential
market before introducing a new product.
Government commissions conduct a survey to
gather the factual information, it needs to
evaluate existing legislation, etc.
 Characteristics of Survey
1. Survey is conducted in a natural setting.
2. Survey seeks responses directly form the
respondents.
3. Survey is widely used in non-experimental
social science research.
4. Often use questionnaire or interview method
for data collection
. 5. Survey involves real world samples.
6. Often it is quantitative method, but can also
be qualitative.
7. It is systematic, follows specific set of rules, a
formal and orderly logic of sequence.
8. It is impartial, select sample units without
any prejudice and preference.
Purpose of Survey
There are two purposes of survey, they are as
follows:
1. Information gathering: It collects information
for a specific purpose. For example, pools,
census, customer satisfaction, attitude, etc
2. Theory testing and building: Surveys are also
used for the purpose of testing and building
theory.
For example, personality and social psychology
theories.
Advantages of Survey
 Access to wide range of participants.
 Collection of large amount of data.
 May be more ethical than experimental
designs.
Disadvantages of Survey
 Lack of control.
 Data may be superficial.
 Costly to obtain representative data
 Survey methods
a) Personal interview
b) Telephonic interview
c) Email interview
d) Computer direct interview
 Findings cannot be generalised with email
surveys. People who have email are different
from those who do not, even when matched
on demographic characteristics, such as age
and gender.
 Email surveys cannot automatically skip
questions or randomize question
Methodology for Collection of Primary Data
Many times due to inadequacy of data or stale
information, the need arises for collecting a
fresh first hand information.
There are several methods of collecting the
primary data, which are as follows:
 Observation Method
 Interview Method
 Through Questionnaires
 Through Schedules
a) Observation methods
In the observation method, only present/current
behaviour can be studied.

Observation becomes a scientific tool and the

method of data collection
Under the observation method, the information
is sought by way of investigator’s own direct
observation without asking from the
respondent.
Ex: For instance, in a study relating to consumer
behaviour, the investigator instead of asking
the brand of wrist watch used by the
respondent, may himself look at the watch

Observation is the least expensive mode of data

collection
Merits of Observation
1.The main advantage of this method is that
subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is
done accurately.
2. Secondly, the information obtained under this
method relates to what is currently
happening; it is not complicated by either the
past behaviour or future intentions or
attitudes.
3. Thirdly, this method is independent of
respondents’ willingness to respond and as
such is relatively less demanding of active
cooperation on the part of respondents as
happens to be the case in the interview or the
questionnaire method.
4. This method is particularly suitable in studies
which deal with subjects (i.e., respondents)
who are not capable of giving verbal reports
of their feelings for one reason or the other
Demerits of Observation
1.Firstly, it is an expensive method if the
researcher hires someone for observation.
2. Secondly, the information provided by this
method is very limited.
3. Thirdly, sometimes unforeseen factors may
interfere with the observational task.
While using this method, the researcher should
keep in mind things like:
What should be observed?
How the observations should be recorded?
Or how the accuracy of observation can be
ensured?
Example: Suppose a Road Safety Week is
observed in a city and the public is made
aware of advance precautions while walking
on the road. After one week, an observer can
stand at a street corner and observe the
number of people walking on the footpath
and those walking on the road during a given
period of time. This will tell him whether the
campaign on safety is successful or
unsuccessful.
Example 2:
Behaviour or attitude of the children, and also of
those who are inarticulate.
 Types of Observation Methods
There are several methods of observation of
which any one or a combination of some of
them, could be used by the observer.
Some of these are:
 Structured or unstructured method
 Disguised or undisguised method
 Direct-indirect observation
 Human-mechanical observation
 Particiapant – non participant
Structured-Unstructured Observation
Whether the observation should be structured
or unstructured depends on the data needed.

Structured observation:
This is a systematic observation method where
data is collected as per a pre-defined
schedule. The specific variable is used in this
method for data collection.
In case the observation is characterised by a
careful definition of the units to be observed,
the style of recording the observed
information, standardised conditions of
observation and the selection of pertinent
data of observation, then the observation is
called as structured observation.

Structured observation is considered

appropriate in descriptive studies
Example: A manager of a hotel wants to know
"how many of his customers visit the hotel
with their families and how many come as
single customers. Here, the observation is
structured, since it is clear "what is to be
observed".
He may instruct his waiters to record this. This
information is required to decide
requirements of the chairs and tables and also
the ambience.
Unstructured observation
The unstructured observation method is
conducted in a free and open manner without
using any pre-determined objectives, schedules
or variables.

Suppose, the manager wants to know how single

customers and those with families behave and
what their attitudes are like. This study is vague,
and it needs a non-structured observation.
exploratory study the observational procedure is
most likely to be relatively unstructured.
 Disguised-Undisguised Observation
Disguised Observation
In disguised observation, the respondents do
not know that they are being observed.
(When the observer is observing in such a
manner that his presence may be unknown
to the people he is observing, such an
observation is described as disguised
observation.)
Undisguised Observation:
In Undisguised observation, the respondents
are well aware that they are being observed
Human-Mechanical Observation
Most of the studies in marketing research are
based on human observation, wherein
trained observers are required to observe and
record their observation.
In some cases, mechanical devices such as eye
cameras are used for observation. One of the
major advantages of electrical/ mechanical
devices is that their recordings are free from
any subjective bias.
Controlled and uncontrolled observation

If the observation takes place in the natural

setting, it may be termed as uncontrolled
observation,

when observation takes place according to

definite pre-arranged plans, involving
experimental procedure, the same is then
termed controlled observation.
Advantages of Observation Method
1. The original data can be collected at the time
of occurrence of the event.
2. Observation is done in natural surroundings.
Therefore, the facts emerge more clearly,
whereas in a questionnaire, experiments
have environmental as well as time
constraints
. 3. Sometimes, the respondents may not like to
part with some of the information. Such
information can be obtained by the researcher
through observation.
4. Observation can also be done on those who
cannot articulate.
5. Any bias on the part of the researcher is
greatly reduced in the observation method.
Limitations of Observation Method
1. The observer might wait for longer period at
the point of observation. And yet the desired
event may not take place. Observation is
required over a long period of time and
hence may not occur.
2. For observation, an extensive training of
observers is required.
3. This is an expensive method.
4. Only overt ( open ) behaviour can be
observed.
5. Two observers may observe the same event,
but may draw different inferences.
6. It is very difficult to gather information on (1)
Opinions (2) Intention
 Interview Method
The interview method of collecting data
involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli
and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses.

This method can be used through personal

interviews and, if possible, through telephone
interviews.
Personal interviews: Personal interview method
requires a person known as the interviewer
asking questions generally in a face-to-face
contact to the other person or
persons( interviewee)

(At times the interviewee may also ask certain

questions and the interviewer responds to
these, but usually the interviewer initiates the
interview and collects the information.)
Personal interviews can take place at home, at a
shopping mall, on the street, and so on

Types of Personal interview

a) Structure interview
b) Unstructured interview
Structured Interview
The method of collecting information through
personal interviews is usually carried out in a
structured way. As such we call the interviews
as structured interviews.
Such interviews involve the use of a set of
predetermined questions and of highly
standardised techniques of recording.
In a non-structured interview, the interviewer is
allowed much greater freedom to ask, in case
of need, supplementary questions or at times
he may omit certain questions if the situation
so requires.
He may even change the sequence of questions.
He has relatively greater freedom while
recording the responses to include some
aspects and exclude others.
The chief merits of the interview method are as
follows:
(i) More information and that too in greater
depth can be obtained.
(ii) Interviewer by his own skill can overcome
the resistance of interviewee, and thus
response rate is high.
. (iii) There is greater flexibility under this
method as the opportunity to restructure
questions is always there, specially in case of
unstructured interviews
(iv) Observation method can as well be applied
to recording verbal answers to various
questions.
(v) Personal information can as well be obtained
easily under this method.
(vi) Samples ( respondentescan be controlled
more effectively as there arises no difficulty of
the missing returns; non-response generally
remains very low.
(vii) The interviewer can usually control which
person(s) will answer the questions. This is
not possible in mailed questionnaire
approach. If so desired, group discussions may
also be held.
viii) The language of the interview can be
adopted to the ability or educational level of
the person interviewed and as such
misinterpretations concerning questions can
be avoided.
(x) The interviewer can collect supplementary
information about the respondent’s personal
characteristics and environment which is often
of great value in interpreting results.
Demerits of interview method
It is a very expensive method, specially when
large and widely spread geographical sample
is taken.
(ii) There remains the possibility of the bias of
interviewer as well as that of the respondent;
there also remains the headache of
supervision and control of interviewers.
(iii) Certain types of respondents such as
important officials or executives or people in
high income groups may not be easily
approachable under this method and to that
extent the data may prove inadequate.
d) This method is relatively more-time-
consuming,

e) It requires proper training , selection of the

interview, which will add additional cost .

f) It requires proper rapport with respondents

that would facilitate free and frank
responses. This is often a very difficult
requirement
(vii) Interviewing at times may also introduce
systematic error
Effective interview
 TELEPHONIC INTERVIEW
This method of collecting information consists in
collecting data from respondents on
telephone itself.

It is not a very widely used method, but plays

important part in industrial surveys,
particularly in developed regions.
Merits of Telphone interview
1. It is more flexible in comparison to mailing
method.
2. It is faster than other methods i.e., a quick
way of obtaining information.
3. 3. It is cheaper than personal interviewing
method; here the cost per response is
relatively low.
4. Recall is easy; callbacks are simple and
economical.
5. There is a higher rate of response than what
we have in mailing method; the non-response
is generally very low.
6. Replies can be recorded without causing
embarrassment to respondents.
7. Interviewer can explain requirements more
easily
8. No field staff is required.
9. It is very much useful if the respondents are
located in different geographical areas.
Computer Direct Interviews
These are methods in which the respondents
key in (enter) their answers directly into a
computer.
Advantages
 It eliminates data entry and editing costs.
 Answers are more accurate to sensitive
questions through a computer than to a
person or paper questionnaire.
 Interviewer bias is eliminated. Different
interviewers can ask questions in different
ways, leading to different results. The
computer asks the questions the same way
every time.
Disadvantages
 The interviewees must have access to a
computer or it must be provided for them.
 As with mail surveys, computer direct
interviews may have serious response rate
problems in populations due to literacy levels
being low.
E-mail Surveys
Email Questionnaire is a new type of
questionnaire system that revolutionizes the
way on-line questionnaires are conducted.
Unlike other on-line questionnaire systems
that need a web server to construct, distribute
and manage results,
Email Questionnaire is totally email based. It
works with the existing email system making
on-line questionnaire surveys available to
anyone with an Internet connection.
Advantages
 Speed: An email questionnaire can gather
several thousand responses within a day or
two.
 There is practically no cost involved once the
set up has been completed.
 Pictures and sound files can be attached.
 The novelty element of an email survey often
stimulates higher response levels than
ordinary mail surveys.
Disadvantages
 Researcher must possess or purchase a list of
email addresses.
 Some people will respond several times or
pass questionnaires along to friends to
answer.
 Many people dislike
 QUESTIONNAIRES
This method of data collection is quite popular,
particularly in case of big enquiries.

It is being adopted by private individuals,

research workers, private and public
organisations and even by governments.
A questionnaire consists of a number of
questions printed or typed in a definite order
on a form or set of forms.

The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who

are expected to read and understand the
questions and write down the reply in the
space meant for the purpose in the
questionnaire itself.
The respondents have to answer the questions
on their own
Merits of Questionnaire
1. There is low cost even when the universe is
large and is widely spread geographically
2. It is free from the bias of the interviewer;
answers are in respondents’ own words.
3. Respondents have adequate time to give
well thought out answers
4. Respondents, who are not easily
approachable, can also be reached
conveniently.
5 Large samples can be made use of and thus
the results can be made more dependable
and reliable
 Demerits of Questionnaire
The main demerits of this system can also be listed
here:
1. Low rate of return of the duly filled in
questionnaires; bias due to no-response is
often indeterminate.
2. It can be used only when respondents are
educated and cooperating.
3. The control over questionnaire may be lost
once it is sent.
4. This method of collecting data in inflexible, as
the questions cannot be altered.

5. There is also the possibility of ambiguous

replies or omission of replies altogether to
certain questions; interpretation of omissions
is difficult.
6. It is difficult to know whether willing
respondents are truly representative.
7. This method is likely to be the slowest of all
Before using this method, it is always advisable
to conduct ‘pilot study’ (Pilot Survey) for
testing the questionnaires.
In a big enquiry the significance of pilot survey is
felt very much.
Pilot survey is in fact the replica and rehearsal of
the main survey
Such a survey, being conducted by experts,
brings to the light the weaknesses (if any) of
the questionnaires and also of the survey
techniques
Main aspects of a questionnaire:
Quite often questionnaire is considered as the
heart of a survey operation. Hence it should
be very carefully constructed. If it is not
properly set up, then the survey is bound to
fail.
1. General form: So far as the general form of a
questionnaire is concerned, it can either be
structured or unstructured questionnaire.

Structured questionnaires are those

questionnaires in which there are definite,
concrete and pre-determined questions.
The questions are presented with exactly the
same wording and in the same order to all
respondents
2. Question sequence:
In order to make the questionnaire effective
and to ensure quality to the replies received, a
researcher should pay attention to the
question-sequence in preparing the
questionnaire.
A proper sequence of questions reduces
considerably the chances of individual
questions being misunderstood.
The question-sequence
 Must be clear and
 Smoothly-moving,
 relation of one question to another should be
readily apparent to the respondent,
 Questions that are easiest to answer being put
in the beginning.
The following type of questions should
generally be avoided as opening questions in
a questionnaire:
1. Questions that put too great a strain on the
memory or intellect of the respondent;
2. Questions of a personal character;
3. Questions related to personal wealth, etc
3. Question formulation and wording:
With regard to this aspect of questionnaire, the
researcher should note that each question
must be very clear for any sort of
misunderstanding can do irreparable harm to
a survey.
Question should also be
 Impartial in order not to give a biased picture
of the true state of affairs.
 Questions should be constructed
 Questions should have logical par
 Easily understood
 Simple for the respondents to read,
understand and respond
 Questions should be concrete.
 Essentials of a good questionnaire design

:1.To be successful, questionnaire should be

comparatively short and simple i.e., the size of
the questionnaire should be kept to the
minimum
2. . Questions should proceed in logical
sequence moving from easy to more difficult
questions
3. Personal and intimate questions should be left
to the end.
4. Technical terms and vague expressions
capable of different interpretations should be
avoided in a questionnaire.
5. Questions may be dichotomous (yes or no
answers), multiple choice (alternative answers
listed) or open-ended.
6. Questions should not be lengthy , maximum
20 questions can be added.
d) Interview Schedule
This method of data collection is very much like
the collection of data through questionnaire,
with little difference which lies in the fact that
schedules (proforma containing a set of
questions) are being filled in by the
enumerators who are specially appointed for
the purpose
These enumerators along with schedules, go to
respondents, put to them the questions from the
proforma in the order the questions are listed and
record the replies in the space meant for the same
in the proforma.

Enumerators explain the aims and objects of the

investigation and also remove the difficulties
which any respondent may feel in understanding
the implications of a particular question or the
definition or concept of difficult terms
Questionnaire Interview schedule

1. The questionnaire is generally The schedule is generally filled out

sent through mail to respondents by the research worker or the
to be answered as specified in a enumerator, who can interpret
covering letter, but otherwise questions when necessary.
without further assistance from
the sender

2. relatively cheap and economical To collect data through schedules is

since we have to spend money only relatively more expensive since
in preparing the questionnaire and considerable amount of money has
in mailing the same to to be spent in appointing
respondents. enumerators

3. Non-response is usually high in High response rate, as

case of questionnaire as many enumerators fill the answers of the
people do not respond and many respondents.
return the questionnaire without
Questionnaire Interview schedule

4. In case of questionnaire, it is not identity of respondent is known.

always clear as to who replies

5. The questionnaire method is The information is collected well in

likely to be very slow since many time as they are filled in by
respondents do not return the enumerators
questionnaire in time despite
several reminders,

6. Personal contact is generally not direct personal contact is

possible in case of the established with respondents.
questionnaire method

7. Questionnaire method can be schedules the information can be

used only when respondents are gathered even when the
literate and cooperative, respondents happen to be
illiterate.
Questionnaire Interview Schedule
8. Wider and more representative schedules there usually remains
distribution of sample is possible the difficulty in sending
under the questionnaire method, enumerators over a relatively
wider area
9. Risk of collecting incomplete and the information collected is
wrong information is relatively generally complete and accurate as
more under the questionnaire enumerators can remove the
method, difficulties, if any, faced by
respondents in correctly
understanding the questions.

10. The success of questionnaire The success of schedules much

method lies more on the quality of depends upon the honesty and
the questionnaire itself competence of enumerators.
Type of Questions in Questionnaire
a) Open ended questions
b) Close ended questions / Dichotomous
question

c) Multiple choice questions

a) Open-ended questions help collect
qualitative data in a questionnaire where the
respondent can answer in a free form with
little to no restrictions

Ex: What is your suggestions for this problem

What are your opinions

Respondents are free to answer…………….

b) Close ended questions/ Dichotomous
Dichotomous Questions: The dichotomous
question is generally a “yes/no” close-ended
question.
Multiple-Choice Questions:
Multiple-choice questions are a close-ended
question type in which a respondent has to
select one (single-select multiple-choice
question) or many (multi-select multiple
choice question) responses from a given
options
SAMPLING
A sample is a part of a target population, which
is carefully selected to represent the
population. Sampling frame is the list of
elements from which the sample is actually
drawn. Actually, sampling frame is nothing but
the correct list of population.

Example: Telephone directory, Product finder,

Yellow pages.
Sampling is the process of selecting units (e.g.,
people, organizations) from a population of
interest so that by studying the sample we
may fairly generalize our results back to the
population from which they were chosen.
Distinction between Census and Sampling

Census refers to complete inclusion of all

elements in the population.

A sample is a sub-group of the population.

When is a Census Appropriate?
1. A census is appropriate if the size of
population is small.

Example: A researcher may be interested in

contacting firms in iron and steel or
petroleum products industry. These
industries are limited in number, so a census
will be suitable
2. Sometimes, the researcher is interested in
gathering information from every individual.
Example: Quality of food served in a mess
When is Sample Appropriate?
1. When the size of population is large.
2. When time and cost are the main
considerations in research.
3. If the population is homogeneous
4. Also, there are circumstances when a census
is not possible.
Example: Reactions to global advertising by a
company.
 Types of Sample Design
Sampling is divided into two types:
Probability sampling:
Non Probability sampling
In a probability sample, every unit in the
population has equal chances for being
selected as a sample unit. Non-probability
sampling:
In the non-probability sampling, the units in the
population have unequal or negligible, almost
no chances for being selected as a sample
unit.
 Probability Sampling Techniques
• 1. Random sampling.
• 2. Systematic random sampling.
• 3. Stratified random sampling.
• 4. Cluster sampling.
• 5. Multistage sampling
Random Sampling
Simple random sample is a process in which
every item of the population has an equal
probability of being chosen
Multi stage sampling
The name implies that sampling is done in
several stages. This is used with
stratified/cluster designs.
Area Sampling This is a probability sampling, a
special form of cluster sampling.
Example: If someone wants to measure the sales
of toffee in retail stores, one might choose a
city locality and then audit toffee sales in retail
outlets in those localities.
Example: You may like to choose shops which
sell the brand-Cadbury dairy milk. The
disadvantage of the area sampling is that it is
expensive and time-consuming.
Non-probability Sampling Techniques
1. Deliberate sampling
2. Shopping mall intercept sampling
3. Sequential sampling
4. Quota sampling
5. Snowball sampling
6. Panel samples
Deliberate or Purposive Sampling This is also
known as the judgment sampling. The
investigator uses his discretion in selecting
sample observations from the universe. As a
result, there is an element of bias in the
selection.
From the point of view of the investigator, the
sample thus chosen may be a true
representative of the universe. However, the
units in the universe do not enjoy an equal
chance of getting included in the sample.
Therefore, it cannot be considered a
probability sampling.
Example: Test market cities are being selected,
based on the judgment sampling, because
these cities are viewed as typical cities
matching with certain demographical
characteristics.
Judgment sample is also frequently used to
select stores for the purpose of introducing a
new display.
Shopping Mall Intercept Sampling
This is a non-probability sampling method. In
this method the respondents are recruited for
individual interviews at fixed locations in
shopping malls.
Example: Shopper's Shoppe, Food World,
Sunday to Monday. This type of study would
include several malls, each serving different
socio-economic population.
Sequential Sampling This is a method in which the
sample is formed on the basis of a series of
successive decisions. They aim at answering the
research question on the basis of accumulated
evidence.

Sometimes, a researcher may want to take a

modest sample and look at the results.
Thereafter, s(he) will decide if more information
is required for which larger samples are
considered.
If the evidence is not conclusive after a small
sample, more samples are required. If the
position is still inconclusive, still larger samples
are taken.
At each stage, a decision is made about
whether more information should be collected
or the evidence is now sufficient to permit a
conclusion.
Example: Assume that a product needs to be
evaluated. A small probability sample is taken
from among the current user. Suppose it is
found that average annual usage is between 200
to 300 units. It is known that the product is
economically viable only if the average
consumption is 400 units. This information is
sufficient to take a decision to drop the product.
On the other hand, if the initial sample shows a
consumption level of 450 to 600 units,
additional samples are needed for further study.
Quota sampling involves the following steps:
1. The population is divided into segments on
the basis of certain characteristics. Here, the
segments are termed as cells.
2. A quota of unit is selected from each cell.
Example: College students bring in more
students on the consumption of Pepsi. The
major advantage of snowball sampling is that
it monitors the desired characteristics in the
population.
Panel Samples Panel samples are frequently
used in marketing research. To give an
example, suppose that one is interested in
knowing the change in the consumption
pattern of households. A sample of
households is drawn. These households are
contacted to gather information on the
pattern of consumption.
Subsequently, say after a period of six months,
the same households are approached once
again and the necessary information on their
consumption is collected.
Distinction between Probability Sample and
Non-probability Sample Probability Sample
1. Here, each member of a universe has a
known chance of being selected and included
in the sample.
2. Any personal bias is avoided. The researcher
cannot exercise his discretion in the selection
of sample items.
Example: Random sample and cluster sample.
Non-probability Sample In this case, the
likelihood of choosing a particular universe
element is unknown. The sample chosen in
this method is based on aspects like
convenience, quota etc.

Example: Quota sampling and Judgment

sampling.