Operating System Concepts (cont’d)

Course Code: CSC 2209 Course Title: Operating Systems

Dept. of Computer Science

Faculty of Science and Technology

Lecturer No: 02 Week No: Semester: Fall 22-23

Lecturer: Nusrat Jahan Anannya, [email protected]
Lecture Outline
1. I/O Structure
2. Storage Structure
3. How a Modern Computer Works
4. Direct Memory Access Structure
5. Computer-System Architecture
6. A Dual-Core Design
7. Clustered Systems
8. Operating-System Operations
9. Multiprogramming and Multitasking
10. Dual-mode and Multimode Operation
11. Process Management
12. Memory Management
13. File-system Management
14. Caching
 I/O Structure
 After I/O starts, control returns to user program only upon I/O
completion
 Wait instruction idles the CPU until the next interrupt
 Wait loop (contention for memory access)
 At most one I/O request is outstanding at a time, no simultaneous I/O
processing
 After I/O starts, control returns to user program without waiting for
I/O completion
 System call – request to the OS to allow user to wait for I/O completion
 Device-status table contains entry for each I/O device indicating its
type, address, and state
 OS indexes into I/O device table to determine device status and to
modify table entry to include interrupt
Storage Structure
 Main memory – only large storage media that the CPU can access directly
 Random access
 Typically volatile
 Typically random-access memory in the form of Dynamic Random-access
Memory (DRAM)
 Secondary storage – extension of main memory that provides large nonvolatile
storage capacity
 Hard Disk Drives (HDD) – rigid metal or glass platters covered with magnetic
recording material
 Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided into sectors
 The disk controller determines the logical interaction between the device
and the computer
 Non-volatile memory (NVM) devices– faster than hard disks, nonvolatile
 Various technologies
 Becoming more popular as capacity and performance increases, price drops
Storage Hierarchy
 Storage systems organized in hierarchy
 Speed
 Cost
 Volatility

 Caching – copying information into faster storage

system; main memory can be viewed as a cache for
secondary storage
 Device Driver for each device controller to manage I/O
 Provides uniform interface between controller and kernel
Storage-Device Hierarchy
How a Modern Computer Works

A von Neumann architecture

Direct Memory Access (DMA) Structure

 Used for high-speed I/O devices able to transmit

information at close to memory speeds
 Device controller transfers blocks of data from local
buffer storage directly to main memory (RAM)
without CPU intervention
 Only one interrupt is generated per block, rather
than the one interrupt per byte
Computer-System Architecture
 Most systems use a single general-purpose processor
 Most systems have special-purpose processors as well

 Multiprocessors systems growing in use and importance

 Also known as parallel systems, tightly-coupled systems
 Advantages include:
1. Increased throughput
2. Economy of scale
3. Increased reliability – graceful degradation or fault tolerance
 Two types:
1. Asymmetric Multiprocessing – each processor is assigned a specie task.
2. Symmetric Multiprocessing – each processor performs all tasks
Symmetric Multiprocessing Architecture
A Dual-Core Design
 Multi-chip and multicore

 Systems containing all chips

 Chassis containing multiple separate systems
Clustered Systems
 Like multiprocessor systems, but multiple systems working
together
 Usually sharing storage via a storage-area network (SAN)
 Provides a high-availability service which survives failures
 Asymmetric clustering has one machine in hot-standby mode
 Symmetric clustering has multiple nodes running applications,
monitoring each other
 Some clusters are for high-performance computing (HPC)
 Applications must be written to use parallelization
 Some have distributed lock manager (DLM) to avoid conflicting
operations
Clustered Systems
Operating-System Operations
 Bootstrap program – simple code to initialize the system, load
the kernel
 Kernel loads / OS

 Starts system daemons (services provided outside of the kernel)

 Kernel interrupt driven (hardware and software)

 Hardware interrupt by one of the devices
 Software interrupt (exception or trap):
 Software error (e.g., division by zero)
 Request for operating system service – system call
 Other process problems include infinite loop, processes modifying
each other or the operating system
Multiprogramming and Multitasking
 Multiprogramming (Batch system) needed for efficiency
 Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times
 Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has one
to execute
 A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
 One job selected and run via job scheduling
 When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job
 Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU switches jobs so
frequently that users can interact with each job while it is running, creating
interactive computing
 Response time should be < 1 second
 Each user has at least one program executing in memory process
 If several jobs ready to run at the same time  CPU scheduling
 If processes doesn't fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to run
 Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in memory
Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System
Dual-mode and Multimode Operation
 Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other
system components
 User mode and kernel mode
 Mode bit provided by hardware
 Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user code or
kernel code
 Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable in kernel
mode
 System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets it to user

 Increasingly CPUs support multi-mode operations

 i.e. virtual machine manager (VMM) mode for guest VMs
Transition from User to Kernel Mode
 Timer to prevent infinite loop / process hogging resources
 Timer is set to interrupt the computer after some time period
 Keep a counter that is decremented by the physical clock
 Operating system set the counter (privileged instruction)
 When counter zero generate an interrupt
 Set up before scheduling process to regain control or terminate
program that exceeds allotted time
Transition from User to Kernel Mode
Process Management
 A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within the
system. Program is a passive entity, process is an active entity.
 Process needs resources to accomplish its task
 CPU, memory, I/O, files
 Initialization data
 Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable resources
 Single-threaded process has one program counter specifying
location of next instruction to execute
 Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time, until
completion
 Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread
 Typically system has many processes, some user, some operating
system running concurrently on one or more CPUs
 Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the processes /
threads
Process Management Activities
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in
connection with process management:
 Creating and deleting both user and system processes

 Suspending and resuming processes

 Providing mechanisms for process synchronization

 Providing mechanisms for process communication

 Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling

Memory Management
 To execute a program all (or part) of the instructions must be in
memory
 All (or part) of the data that is needed by the program must be
in memory
 Memory management determines what is in memory and when
 Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to users
 Memory management activities
 Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used
and by whom
 Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data to move into
and out of memory
 Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed
File-system Management
 OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage
 Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit - file
 Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk drive, tape drive)
 Varying properties include access speed, capacity, data-transfer rate,
access method (sequential or random)

 File-System management
 Files usually organized into directories
 Access control on most systems to determine who can access
what
 OS activities include
 Creating and deleting files and directories
 Primitives to manipulate files and directories
 Mapping files onto secondary storage
 Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media
Caching
 Important principle, performed at many levels in a computer (in
hardware, operating system, software)
 Information in use copied from slower to faster storage
temporarily
 Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if information
is there
 If it is, information used directly from the cache (fast)
 If not, data copied to cache and used there
 Cache smaller than storage being cached
 Cache management important design problem
 Cache size and replacement policy
Books
 Operating Systems Concept
 Written by Galvin and Silberschatz
 Edition: 9th
References
 Operating Systems Concept
 Written by Galvin and Silberschatz
 Edition: 9th