Computer Networks

Unit - 1
Simply a Friend’s NETWORK
 computer network
• A computer network, often simply referred to
as a network, is a collection of computers
and devices interconnected by
communications channels that facilitate
communications among users and allows
users to share resources.
Collection of computers
devices
communications channels
WIRED WIRELESS
• Networks may be classified according to a
wide variety of characteristics.
• A computer network allows sharing of
resources and information among
interconnected devices.
 Computer networks can be used for a variety of purposes:

Facilitating communications: Using a network, people can communicate efficiently and easily via
email, instant messaging, chat rooms, telephone, video telephone calls, and video conferencing.

Sharing hardware: In a networked environment, each computer on a network may access and
use hardware resources on the network, such as printing a document on a shared network
printer.

Sharing files, data, and information: In a network environment, authorized user may access data
and information stored on other computers on the network. The capability of providing access to
data and information on shared storage devices is an important feature of many networks.

Sharing software: Users connected to a network may run application programs on remote
computers.

Speed up.
 Components:

• Message

• Sender
• Receiver

• Transmission medium
• Protocol
• Protocol is a set of rules.
• Example: Now consider that you are driving a car.
• You have to follow some set of rules for that.
• Why was that rules put?
• It was posed on all drivers so that the
transportation is smooth and safe.
• Similarly in networking the protocols were set up so
that the transportation of your message over the
network is smooth and safe.
• A standard way of communicating across a
network.
• A protocol is the "language" of the network.
• A method by which two dissimilar systems can
communicate.
• TCP is a protocol which runs over a network.
 Data flow:
• Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex connections
• A simplex connection is a connection in which the data flows in only one direction, from the
transmitter to the receiver. This type of connection is useful if the data do not need to flow in
both directions (for example, from your computer to the printer or from the mouse to your
computer...).
• A half-duplex connection (sometimes called an alternating connection or semi-duplex) is a
connection in which the data flows in one direction or the other, but not both at the same
time. With this type of connection, each end of the connection transmits in turn. This type of
connection makes it possible to have bidirectional communications using the full capacity of
the line.

EXAMPLE -
• A full-duplex connection is a connection in which the data flow in both directions
simultaneously. Each end of the line can thus transmit and receive at the same time, which
means that the bandwidth is divided in two for each direction of data transmission if the
same transmission medium is used for both directions of transmission.

EXAMPLE -
•types of
transmission
technologies
• Transmission is actually the process of sending
and propagating analog or signals of digital
information.
• Transmission technology generally refers to
physical layer protocol duties like modulation,
demodulation, line coding, and many more.
• It might also include higher-level protocol
duties such as digitizing analog signals, data
compression, etc. 
• Types of Transmission Technology : 
Transmission media is basically divided into
two categories:  
• Broadcast Networks,
• Point-to-Point Networks.
• 1. Broadcast Networks : 
Broadcast networks are also known as terrestrial
networks.
• It is basically a group of radio stations, television
stations, or any other electronic media outlets that
simply generate agreement to air, or broadcast,
content generally from a centralized source.
• Broadcasting is simply a method of transferring
messages to all the recipients simultaneously.
• In this network, a message that is sent by a node is
received by all the other nodes connected to the
network and share a common medium of
communication.
• Broadcast networks also avoid procedures of complex
routing of switched network by simply confirming and
ensuring that each transmission of nodes is basically
received by all the other nodes in the network.
• This is the reason why the broadcast network has
single communications channel. 
• In this network, each receiving station just receives all signals that
are sent by transmitters.
• Even routing of signals is highly affected passively.
• These networks generally have single communication that is shared
by all machines present on the network.
• Short messages also are known as packets that are sent by any of
the machines present are received by all of the others present over
there.
• Some of the systems of broadcast also support transmission to
subset of machines also known as multicasting.
• It just links, in contrast, communication channel that is basically
shared by all of machines in network.
• Advantages of Broadcast Networks – 
• In this network, packets are generally transmitted and
received by all of computers. 
• It allows multicasting in the network. 
• It has no limit. Even events can also run as long as required. 
• It ensures better utilization of all resources available. 
 
• Disadvantages of Broadcast Networks – 
• It cannot accommodate huge number of devices. 
• It doesn’t allow personalization of message.
• 2. Point-to-Point Networks : 
Point-to-Point Networks or Point-to-Point Connection is type of
private data connection that is connecting securely two or
more locations for private data services.
• It might also be configured to usually carry voice, internet, and
data services together all over same point-to-point network.
• It simply refers to type of communication connection among
two endpoints or nodes of communication.
• It is connection among pairs of machines.
• Transmission from point-to-point with one sender and receiver
is commonly known as unicasting.
• This network is generally used for two locations that are required to
securely send data that is very sensitive and confidential among each of
locations.
• A point-to-point or P2P (Data Link) also gives or provides path from one
point that is fixed to other point being fixed.
• It is very closed network data transport service that does not travel
through public Internet.
• This network includes various connections among individual pairs of
machine.
• A packet present on these types of networks might be needed to go
through intermediate computers before they reach desired or
destination computer.
• The packets also need to follow multiple routes of different length sizes.
• Therefore, routing algorithms are very
essential and important in point-to-point
connection.
• This network is generally available in range of
bandwidth speeds along with point-to-point
T1, point-to-point Ethernet, or many more.
• Advantages of Point-to-Point Networks – 
• It increases productivity. 
• It generally uses leased lines so that speeds are
guaranteed. 
• It provides better security so that data can be transferred
securely with confidence. 
 
• Disadvantages of Point-to-Point Networks – 
• With this network, we can only connect two sites.
• It is very expensive for distant locations. 
•Network
Categories: LAN,
MAN, WAN
(Wireless /Wired)
Network Types
• Networks may be
classified according to a
wide variety of
characteristics.
Network Types – By Span Of Geographical area

• LAN
• MAN
• WAN
 Local Area Network
• A local area network (LAN) is a network that
connects computers and devices in a limited
geographical area such as home, school,
computer laboratory, office building, or closely
positioned group of buildings.

• Each computer or device on the network is a

node.
 Metropolitan Area Network
• A Metropolitan area network (MAN) is a large
computer network that usually spans(covers)
a city or a large campus.
 Wide Area Network
• A wide area network (WAN) is a computer
network that covers a large geographic area such
as a city, country, or spans even intercontinental
distances, using a communications channel that
combines many types of media such as
telephone lines, cables, and air waves.
• A WAN often uses transmission facilities
provided by common carriers, such as telephone
companies.
 Network Software:

Concept of Layers, Protocols, interfaces

and services.

Reference Models: OSI, TCP/IP and

comparison
 What is the OSI model ?
• Open Systems Interconnection model is fundamental
to all communications between network devices.
• Developed in 1974 by ISO after the American
Department of Defence began using the TCP/IP suite
of protocols.
• Finally adopted in 1977. It is now the theoretical
model for how communication takes place between
network devices.

42
Figure 2.17 OSI model
 Layers
• In the sense of purpose and responsibility, each layer is
separate and independent
• Each has its own function, but also provides a service to
those layers above and below itself
• The model should be considered an aid to understanding the
nature of communication on the network – and useful in
sorting out troubles that might occur on a network
• By providing, it allows both software engineers and hardware
manufacturers ensure their products work together.

44
 The Layers at Work
As the next slide shows:
• When communicating, each OSI layer talks with the same
layer in the other device
• E.g. the Application Layer of Device A communicates with
the Application Layer of Device B, by passing the data
through the other layers
• The Application Layer of each device is not concerned with
how the other layers are functioning, but it does rely on
them to do their job

45
The layers at Work

46
Remembering the Layers
Application All
Presentation People
Session Seem
Transport To
Network Need
Data Link Data
Physical Processing

47
 How does data flow ?
When data is sent from the application on the source
computer the following happens
• Data in the form of a packet moves down through
the layers
• When it reaches the Physical Layer it is ready to be
sent along the cable
• At the Physical Layer the bits may be analogue or
digital, in the form of electrical, light or radio waves

48
 How does data flow ? (2)

• The data is transmitted to the destination device

• It travels up through the layers of the OSI model,
reaching the user.
• As data moves down through the layers it is
encapsulated – ie additional information is added as
headers or trailers
• The data in the packet does not change
• See the following diagram

49
Encapsulation

50
 Physical Layer
• The lowest, bottom, layer – responsible for the physical
connection between devices
• The NIC converts the data (bits) in to transmission signals.
• Transmissions may be analogue or digital
• Responsible for the rate of transmission
• Includes all components such as the type of connector (RJ-45,
Token Ring, BNC, SC connector)
• Devices at this level include NICs, repeaters, hubs and
concentrators

51
Figure 2.5 Physical layer
 Note:

The physical layer is responsible for

transmitting individual bits from one
node to the next.
Functions of Physical Layer:
Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium:
Transmission medium

Representation of bits

Data Rate: The speed with which data can be transmitted from one

device to another.

Synchronization of bits: bits should be synchronized.

Line configuration: point to point configuration and multipoint

configuration

Physical Topology

Transmission Mode
 Data Link Layer
• Has two sub layers of its own:
– Logical Link Control (LLC)
– Media Access Control (MAC)
• LLC acts between protocols such as Internet Protocol
(IP) and the MAC method.
• MAC is responsible for the connection to the physical
media (eg cable)

55
 MAC
• Each NIC has a unique number hard coded in to the
card – its physical address
• The first 6 digits denote the manufacturer, the next
six are unique) – type “winipcfg” on your PC
• When the MAC address is added to the packet it is
now known as a frame
• It now has all the information required to travel from
the source to the destination

56
Figure 2.6 Data link layer
 Note:

The data link layer is responsible for

transmitting frames from
one node to the next.
Functions of Data Link Layer:
Framing

Physical Addressing

Flow Control

Error control

Access control : when two or more devices are

connected to the same link, data link layer
protocols are necessary to determine which device
has control over the link at any given time.
Figure 2.7 Node-to-node delivery
Example 1
In Figure 2.8 a node with physical address 10 sends a
frame to a node with physical address 87. The two nodes
are connected by a link. At the data link level this frame
contains physical addresses in the header. These are the
only addresses needed. The rest of the header contains
other information needed at this level. The trailer usually
contains extra bits needed for error detection
Figure 2.8 Example 1
 Network Layer
• Responsible for the correct addressing and delivery of packets
of data
• These are known as datagrams
• Uses the network address ( this is a logical address – and does
not depend upon any hardware in the device, or the device’s
physical location)
• Physical and Logical Topologies will be discussed in a later
lecture

63
 Network Layer (2)
The Network Layer does the following:
• Adds the address to the packet (encapsulation)
• Maps the network address to the devices physical address
• Determines the best path for the packet (routing)
• Ensures that the packet is in the correct format for the
destination
See Diagram =

64
 How does it work ?
• Encapsulation at the Transport Layer involves adding the address of the
sender to the datagram
• The destination address is now added. Both addresses are logical.
• Both addresses are necessary for packets to move between end systems.
• If a packet must move to another network, a routing protocol is required
• If different packet lengths are used on the different networks, the
Network Layer formats the data accordingly
• The primary piece of hardware which works on this layer is the router.
(covered in detail, later in course)

65
Figure 2.9 Network layer
 Note:

The network layer is responsible for the

delivery of packets from the original
source to the
final destination.
Functions of Network layer:
Logical addressing

Routing
Figure 2.10 Source-to-destination delivery
Example 2
In Figure 2.11 we want to send data from a node with
network address A and physical address 10, located on
one LAN, to a node with a network address P and
physical address 95, located on another LAN. Because
the two devices are located on different networks, we
cannot use physical addresses only; the physical
addresses only have local jurisdiction. What we need here
are universal addresses that can pass through the LAN
boundaries. The network (logical) addresses have this
characteristic.
Figure 2.11 Example 2
 Transport Layer
• Ensures reliable transport of packets from source to
destination
• Also manages the speed of transmission – flow
control
• There are two types of transmission (Connection-
Oriented Transmissions and Connectionless
Transmissions) – see next slide

72
 Connection-Oriented Transmissions
• Also known as ‘ Reliable Transport Method’ – uses
acknowledgement (ack) packets on successful receipt of data
• Extra packets slows down communication
• Features are
– Reliability
– Slower Communication
– Packets are re-transmitted if unrecognisable or not received
• Once all the data is received successfully , the packet is re-
assembled and the Transport Layer passes it to the Session
Layer

73
 Connectionless Transmissions
• In this mode the transmitting device does not require
acknowledgements from the receiver, and continues
to transmit on the assumption that the data was
received
• Features are:
– Little or No Reliability
– Faster Transmission
– Packets are not Re-transmitted

74
 Flow Control
• Establishes the maximum speed at which both sender
and receiver can communicate at
• Transport Layer determines largest packet size which
can be sent
• Packets are numbered – to allow re-assembly in the
correct order

75
Figure 2.12 Transport layer
 Note:

The transport layer is responsible for

delivery of a message from one process
to another.
Functions of Transport Layer:
Service-Point Addressing: delivery of message is
also from one specific process on one computer to
a specific process running on another computer.
So transport layer header also includes a type of
address called as service point address or port
address.

Segmentation and reassembly: message is

divided into transmittable segments, with each
segment containing a sequence number. With
these sequence numbers the message has been
reassemble at destination.
Connection Control: the transport layer can
be either connectionless or connection-
oriented.

Flow Control: like data link layer, transport

layer is responsible for flow control by sliding
window protocols.

Error Control: like data link layer, transport

layer is responsible for error control. Error
control is performed process to process by
using simple tools as CHECKSUM,
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT, TIMED-OUT.
Figure 2.12 Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message
Process to process delivery
Example 3
Figure 2.14 shows an example of transport layer
communication. Data coming from the upper layers have
port addresses j and k (j is the address of the sending
process, and k is the address of the receiving process).
Since the data size is larger than the network layer can
handle, the data are split into two packets, each packet
retaining the port addresses (j and k). Then in the network
layer, network addresses (A and P) are added to each
packet.
Figure 2.14 Example 3
 Session Layer
• Primarily responsible for handling the session
between devices (beginning, maintaining and
finishing)
• Enforces order in the communication between
devices
• Regulates the flow of data
• It takes responsibility for the following ….

84
 Session Services
The following services are provided:

• Establishing a Connection
• Maintaining the Session
• Ending the Connection
• Dialogue Control
• Dialogue Separation

85
 Session Services (2)
• Handshaking – SYN and ACK packets
• Session must be terminated (otherwise one device will
be still transmitting without any device actually
listening)
• Dialogue Control (simplex, half-duplex, full-duplex)
• Dialogue Separation – checkpoints within the
transmission which allow the detection of lost packets,
and subsequent re-transmission

86
Session Layer Functions:
Dialog Control: session layer allows two
systems to enter into a dialog, it allows
communication between two processes to take
place in either half duplex or full duplex mode.

Synchronization: add checkpoints or

synchronization points
 Presentation Layer
This layer has three fundamental functions
(1) Data Presentation
• Enables receiving device to understand the
information sent from the source
• Converts data from native format (abstract syntax) to
a common format (transfer syntax), e.g. ASCII

88
 Presentation Layer (2)
(2) Data Compression
• By reducing the volume of data, transfers can take
place in less time
• Packets are examined and such things as spaces in
text removed
• The destination device returns the data to its original
format before passing to the Application Layer

89
 Presentation Layer (3)
(3) Data Encryption
• Allows data to be converted to a form which hides its
meaning, apart from those you wish to see it
• Not all data is encrypted on its journey across the
network
• In order for decryption to occur at the destination
device a ‘key’ is required

90
Functions of Presentation Layer:
Translation – The presentation layer at the sender
changes information from its sender-dependent format into a
common format. The presentation layer at receiving machine
changes the common format into its receiver dependent format.

Encryption – MESSAGE -> ?@#%^* !

Compression – reduces the number if bits contained in

the information.
 Application Layer

• ‘Closest’ layer to the user

• Works with the applications you use to communicate over the
network
• E.g.. Services include SMTP, HTTP and FTP
• Clicking on a link on a web page issues a command for the browser
to retrieve the relevant information from the Internet
• In this example your computer is the source, and the host of the
web site information is the destination
• The application completes your request and delivers the
information to your computer

92
 Application Services
• File Services
• Electronic-mail Services
• Network-printing Services
• Application Services
• Database Services

93
Figure 2.15 Application layer
 Note:

The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.
Functions of Application Layer:
Network Virtual Terminal: Like TELNET

File transfer, access and management:

Mail Services:

Directory Services:
Figure 2.16 Summary of duties
 OSI versus TCP/IP Model
• OSI model is an important concept
• Protocol most in use on modern networks is TCP/IP
• TCP/IP does not map its layers precisely to OSI model
• OSI = 7 layers, TCP/IP = 4 layers (sometimes a 5th
physical layer is referred to)

98
 OSI vs TCP/IP
Application
Application or
Presentation
Process Layer
Session

Transport Transport

Network Internet

Data Link Data Link

Physical

99
 TCP/IP Model – Summary
• Application or Process Layer – concerned with how data at
both ends is handled.
• Transport Layer – manages flow of data
• Internet Layer – consists of several protocols, primary
protocol is IP (providing hierarchical addressing scheme
• Data Link (or Network Interface) Layer – manages
transmission of data within the network
• Physical Layer – not really defined, TCP/IP leaves the physical
connection to manage itself

100
 Summary
• Purpose of the OSI model and its seven layers
• Function of each layer
• Process for communication between devices
• TCP/IP Model

101
• Physical Layer: Bit rate, Baud rate, Bandwidth,
Transmission Impairments: Attenuation, Distortion,
Noise; Data rate limits: Nyquist formula, Shannon
Formula, Modulation & modems; Transmission
Modes, Multiplexing: Frequency Division, Time
Division, Wavelength Division; Concept of
Topologies, Transmission Media: Twisted pair,
coaxial, fiber optics, Wireless Transmission (radio,
microwave & infrared);Message switching, Circuit
Switching & Packet Switching.
•Bit rate, Baud
rate,
Bandwidth,
 Bit rate
• Bit rate is the number of binary bits (1s or 0s) transmitted per second.
• Bit rate refers to the rate at which data is processed or transferred.
• It is usually measured in seconds, ranging from bps for smaller values to
kbps and mbps.
• Bit rate is also known as bitrate or data rate.
 Baud Rate
• Baud rate is the rate at which the number of
signal elements or changes to the signal
occurs per second when it passes through a
transmission medium.
• The higher a baud rate is the faster the data is
sent/received.
• In above Image, Number of signal elements (marked
in red color) = 3, Number of bits transmitted (1, 0, 1)
= 3. So, Here Bit rate = 3/1 = 3 bits per second. And,
Baud rate = 3/1 = 3 baud per second.
• In above Image, Number of signal elements (marked
in red color) = 6, Number of bits transmitted (1, 1, 0)
= 3. So, Here Bit rate = 3/1 = 3 bits per second. and,
Baud rate = 6/1 = 6 baud per second.
 Note:

The bandwidth is a property of a

medium: It is the difference between the
highest and the lowest frequencies that
the medium can
satisfactorily pass.
Figure 3.13 Bandwidth
Figure 3.14 Example 3
Transmission impairments and
numericals
• Transmission media are not perfect.
• The imperfections(deficiency, faults)
cause impairment in the signal sent
through the medium.
• This means that the signal at the
beginning and end of the medium are
not the same.
• What is sent is not what is received.
• Three types of impairment usually occur:
• Attenuation
• Distortion
• And Noise
 attenuation
• Attenuation means loss of energy.
• When a signal, simple or complex, travels
through a medium, it losses some of its energy.
• That is why a wire carrying electrical signals
gets warm.
• Some of the electrical energy in the signal is
converted to heat.
• To compensate for this loss, amplifiers are
used to amplify the signal.
Figure 3.21 Attenuation
 decibel
• To show that a signal has lost or gained strength,
engineers use the concept of decibel.
• The decibel (dB) measures the relative strengths of
two signals or a signal at two different points.
• Note that the dB is negative if a signal is attenuated
• And Positive if a signal is amplified.
• dB = 10 log 10 (P2/P1)
• Where P1 and P2 are the power of a signal at points
1 and 2.
 decibel
• In electronics, the gains of amplifiers, attenuation of
signals, and signal-to-noise ratios are often expressed
in decibels.

• The decibel confers a number of advantages, such as

the ability to conveniently represent very large or
small numbers, and the ability to carry out
multiplication of ratios by simple addition and
subtraction.
Example 12
Imagine a signal travels through a transmission medium
and its power is reduced to half. This means that P2 = 1/2
P1. In this case, the attenuation (loss of power) can be
calculated as

Solution
10 log10 (P2/P1) = 10 log10 (0.5P1/P1) = 10 log10 (0.5)
= 10(–0.3) = –3 dB
Example 13
Imagine a signal travels through an amplifier and its
power is increased ten times. This means that P2 = 10
P1. In this case, the amplification (gain of power) can be
calculated as

10 log10 (P2/P1) = 10 log10 (10P1/P1)

= 10 log10 (10) = 10 (1) = 10 dB
Example 14

One reason that engineers use the

decibel to measure the changes in the
strength of a signal is that decibel
numbers can be added (or subtracted)
when we are talking about several
points instead of just two (cascading).
In Figure 3.22 a signal travels a long
distance from point 1 to point 4. The signal
is attenuated by the time it reaches point 2.
Between points 2 and 3, the signal is
amplified. Again, between points 3 and 4,
the signal is attenuated. We can find the
resultant decibel for the signal just by
adding the decibel measurements between
each set of points.
Figure 3.22 Example 14

dB = –3 + 7 – 3 = +1
 distortion

• Distortion means that the signal changes its

form or shape.
 noise
• Noise is another problem.
• Noise is the external energy which corrupts the
signal.
• Thermal noise – random motion of electrons in a wire
that creates an extra signal.
• Induced noise – comes from sources such as motors
and appliances.
• Crosstalk – effect of one wire on the other.
• Impulse noise – it is a spike (a signal with high energy)
that comes from power lines, lightening and so on.
Figure 3.24 Noise
Data rate limits:
Nyquist formula,
Shannon
Formula,
 DATA RATE LIMITS

A very important consideration in data communications is how fast we can send data, in
bits per second, over a channel. Data rate depends on three factors:
1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)

Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate

Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity

3.129
 Example

We need to send 265 kbps over a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 20 kHz. How
many signal levels do we need?
Solution
We can use the Nyquist formula as shown:

Since this result is not a power of 2, we need to either increase the number of levels or
reduce the bit rate. If we have 128 levels, the bit rate is 280 kbps. If we have 64 levels, the
bit rate is 240 kbps.
Shannon capacity
• Shannon capacity is a formula used to
determine the theoretical highest data rate for
a channel through which data is
passing/transferring.
• The formula is:
• C=B log2 (1 + S/N)
• Here C is the Capacity, B is the Bandwidth of
the channel, S/N is the Signal to Noise ratio.
 Example 1:
• Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the
value of the signal-to-noise ratio is almost zero. In
other words, the noise is so strong that the signal is
faint. For this channel, the capacity is calculated as:
• C = B log2 (1 + S/N) = B log2 (1 + 0) = B log2 (1)
• =B * 0 = 0

• This means that the capacity of this channel is zero

regardless of the bandwidth. In other words, we
cannot send any data through this channel.
Note

The Shannon capacity gives us the upper

limit; the Nyquist formula tells us how many
signal levels we need.

3.134
Modulation
& modems;
 Modulation
modulation is the process of varying one or more
properties of a periodic waveform, called the
carrier signal, with a separate signal called the
modulation signal that typically contains
information to be transmitted.
 Digital to
Digital
Conversion
Line coding is the process of converting digital data to
digital signals.
We assume that data, in the form of text, numbers,
graphical images, audio, or video, are stored in computer
memory as sequences of bits.
Signal Element Versus Data Element

In data communications, our goal is to send data elements.

A data element is the smallest entity that can represent a piece

of information: this is the bit.

In digital data communications, a signal element carries data

elements.

A signal element is the shortest unit (timewise) of a digital signal.

Data elements are being carried; signal elements are the

carriers.
We define a ratio r which is the number of data
elements carried by each signal element. Figure 4.2
shows several situations with different values of r.
Figure 4.2 Signal element versus data
element
Data Rate Versus Signal Rate

The data rate defines the number of data elements

(bits) sent in 1s.
The unit is bits per second (bps).

The signal rate is the number of signal elements

sent in 1s.
The unit is the baud.

The data rate is sometimes called the bit rate; the

signal rate is sometimes called the pulse rate, the
modulation rate, or the baud rate.
DC Components

When the voltage level in a digital signal is constant for

a while, the spectrum creates very low frequencies.
These frequencies around zero, called DC (direct-
current) components, present problems for a system
that cannot pass low frequencies or a system that uses
electrical coupling (via a transformer).

For example, a telephone line cannot pass frequencies

below 200 Hz. Also a long-distance link may use one or
more transformers to isolate different parts of the line
electrically. For these systems, we need a scheme with
no DC component.
Figure 4.3 DC component
Self-synchronization

To correctly interpret the signals received from the

sender, the receiver's bit intervals must
correspond exactly to the sender's bit intervals.

If the receiver clock is faster or slower, the bit

intervals are not matched and the receiver might
misinterpret the signals.
 Figure 4.3 Effect of lack of synchronization

A self-synchronizing digital signal includes timing information in the

data being transmitted.

This can be achieved if there are transitions in the signal that alert the
receiver to the beginning, middle, or end of the pulse.
4.151
Figure 4.4 Lack of synchronization
Figure 4.2 Signal level versus data level
Example 1

A signal has two data levels with a pulse duration of 1

ms. We calculate the pulse rate and bit rate as follows:

Pulse Rate = 1/ 10-3= 1000 pulses/s

Bit Rate = Pulse Rate x log2 L = 1000 x log2 2 = 1000 bps
Example 2
A signal has four data levels with a pulse duration of 1
ms. We calculate the pulse rate and bit rate as follows:

Pulse Rate = = 1000 pulses/s

Bit Rate = PulseRate x log2 L = 1000 x log2 4 = 2000 bps
Figure 4.5 Line coding schemes
 Note:

Unipolar encoding uses only one

voltage level.
Figure 4.6 Unipolar encoding
 Note:

Polar encoding uses two voltage levels

(positive and negative).
Figure 4.7 Types of polar encoding
 Note:

In NRZ-L the level of the signal is

dependent upon the state of the bit.
 Note:

In NRZ-I the signal is inverted if a 1 is

encountered.
Figure 4.8 NRZ-L and NRZ-I encoding
 Drawbacks of NRZ - L

1. Suffers from the presence of dc

component
2. Lack of synchronization capabilities
due to potential of long runs of
unchanged voltage levels.
Figure 4.9 RZ encoding
 Note:

A good encoded digital signal must

contain a provision for
synchronization.
Figure 4.10 Manchester encoding
 Note:

In Manchester encoding, the transition

at the middle of the bit is used for
both synchronization and bit
representation.
Figure 4.11 Differential Manchester encoding
 Note:

In differential Manchester encoding,

the transition at the middle of the bit
is used only for synchronization.
The bit representation is defined by
the inversion or noninversion at the
beginning of the bit.
 Note:

In bipolar encoding, we use three

levels: positive, zero,
and negative.
Figure 4.12 Bipolar AMI encoding
Analog to Digital Conversion
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM):

The most common technique to change an

analog signal to digital data (digitization) is
called PULSE CODE MODULATION (PCM).
A PCM encoder has three processes or Components of PCM Encoder are as:

Sampling
Quantizing
Encoding
• The sampling process is sometimes
referred to as PULSE AMPLITUDE
MODULATION (PAM).
Figure 4.18 PAM
Figure 4.19 Quantized PAM signal
Figure 4.20 Quantizing by using sign and magnitude
Uniform quantisation uses equal quantisation levels throughout the
entire range of an input analogue signal. The signal-to-noise ratio (SNR),
including quantisation noise, is the most important factor affecting voice
quality in uniform quantisation. The signal-to-noise ratio is measured in
decibels (dB). The higher the signal-to-noise ratio, the better the voice
quality. Quantisation noise reduces the signal-to-noise ratio of a signal, so
an increase in quantisation noise degrades the quality of a voice signal.
Low signals will have a small signal-to-noise ratio and high signals will
have a large signal-to-noise ratio. Because most voice signals are
relatively low, having better voice quality at higher signal levels is an
inefficient way of digitising voice signals. Uniform quantisation was
therefore replaced by a non-uniform quantisation process called
companding
Figure 4.21 PCM
Figure 4.22 From analog signal to PCM digital code
 Note:

According to the Nyquist theorem, the

sampling rate must be at least 2 times
the highest frequency.
Example 4
What sampling rate is needed for a signal with a
bandwidth of 10,000 Hz (1000 to 11,000 Hz)?
Solution
The sampling rate must be twice the highest frequency
in the signal:

Sampling rate = 2 x (11,000) = 22,000 samples/s

Digital to Analog Conversion
• We can vary 3 characteristics of a sine wave,
that are:

• Amplitude
• Frequency
• Phase
• When we vary these characteristics, the
outcome should be a NEW WAVEFORM or a
DIFFERENT VERSION of a WAVEFORM.
Signal Element Versus Data Element

In data communications, our goal is to send data elements.

A data element is the smallest entity that can represent a piece

of information: this is the bit.

In digital data communications, a signal element carries data

elements.

A signal element is the shortest unit (timewise) of a digital signal.

Data elements are being carried; signal elements are the

carriers.
We define a ratio r which is the number of data
elements carried by each signal element. Figure 4.2
shows several situations with different values of r.
Figure 4.2 Signal element versus data
element
Data Rate Versus Signal Rate:

The data rate defines the number of data elements

(bits) sent in 1s.
The unit is bits per second (bps).

The signal rate is the number of signal elements

sent in 1s.
The unit is the baud.

The data rate is sometimes called the bit rate; the

signal rate is sometimes called the pulse rate, the
modulation rate, or the baud rate.
• S=N * 1/r baud
• Where N is data rate(bps) and r is the number
of data elements carried in one signal element
and S is signal elements sent per second.
• The value of r in analog transmission is

•
• Where L is the level of signal element
•Amplitude
Shift Keying
• In amplitude shift keying, the amplitude of the
carrier signal is varied to create signal
elements.

• In this case both frequency and phase remains

constant but the amplitude changes.
Figure 5.3 ASK
Figure 5.4 Relationship between baud rate and bandwidth in ASK
Example 3
Find the minimum bandwidth for an ASK signal
transmitting at 2000 bps. The transmission mode is half-
duplex.
Solution

In ASK the baud rate and bit rate are the same. The baud
rate is therefore 2000. An ASK signal requires a
minimum bandwidth equal to its baud rate. Therefore,
the minimum bandwidth is 2000 Hz.
Example 4
Given a bandwidth of 5000 Hz for an ASK signal, what
are the baud rate and bit rate?
Solution
In ASK the baud rate is the same as the bandwidth,
which means the baud rate is 5000. But because the baud
rate and the bit rate are also the same for ASK, the bit
rate is 5000 bps.
Example 5
Given a bandwidth of 10,000 Hz (1000 to 11,000 Hz),
draw the full-duplex ASK diagram of the system. Find the
carriers and the bandwidths in each direction. Assume
there is no gap between the bands in the two directions.
Solution
For full-duplex ASK, the bandwidth for each direction is
BW = 10000 / 2 = 5000 Hz
The carrier frequencies can be chosen at the middle of
each band (see Fig. 5.5).
fc (forward) = 1000 + 5000/2 = 3500 Hz
fc (backward) = 11000 – 5000/2 = 8500 Hz
Figure 5.5 Solution to Example 5
Binary ASK (BASK)
Figure 5.6 FSK
Figure 5.7 Relationship between baud rate and bandwidth in FSK
Example 6
Find the minimum bandwidth for an FSK signal
transmitting at 2000 bps. Transmission is in half-duplex
mode, and the carriers are separated by 3000 Hz.
Solution
For FSK
BW = baud rate + fc1 - fc0
BW = bit rate + fc1 - fc0 = 2000 + 3000 = 5000 Hz
Example 7
Find the maximum bit rates for an FSK signal if the
bandwidth of the medium is 12,000 Hz and the difference
between the two carriers is 2000 Hz. Transmission is in
full-duplex mode.
Solution
Because the transmission is full duplex, only 6000 Hz is
allocated for each direction.
BW = baud rate + fc1 - fc0
Baud rate = BW - (fc1 - fc0 ) = 6000 - 2000 = 4000
But because the baud rate is the same as the bit rate, the
bit rate is 4000 bps.
Figure 5.8 PSK
Figure 5.9 PSK constellation
Figure 5.10 The 4-PSK method
Figure 5.11 The 4-PSK characteristics
Figure 5.12 The 8-PSK characteristics
QPSK and its implementation:
 Note:

Quadrature amplitude modulation is a

combination of ASK and PSK so that a
maximum contrast between each signal
unit (bit, dibit, tribit, and so on) is
achieved.
Figure 5.14 The 4-QAM and 8-QAM constellations
Figure 5.15 Time domain for an 8-QAM signal
•Analog to
Analog
Conversion
Figure 5.24 Analog-to-analog modulation
Figure 5.25 Types of analog-to-analog modulation
 Note:

The total bandwidth required for AM

can be determined from the bandwidth
of the audio signal:
BWt = 2 x BWm.
Figure 5.26 Amplitude modulation
Figure 5.27 AM bandwidth
Example 13
We have an audio signal with a bandwidth of 4 KHz.
What is the bandwidth needed if we modulate the signal
using AM? Ignore FCC regulations.

Solution
An AM signal requires twice the bandwidth of the
original signal:
BW = 2 x 4 KHz = 8 KHz
 Note:

The total bandwidth required for FM

can be determined from the bandwidth
of the audio signal:
BWt = 10 x BWm.
Figure 5.29 Frequency modulation
Figure 5.30 FM bandwidth
Example 14
We have an audio signal with a bandwidth of 4 MHz.
What is the bandwidth needed if we modulate the signal
using FM? Ignore FCC regulations.

Solution
An FM signal requires 10 times the bandwidth of the
original signal:
BW = 10 x 4 MHz = 40 MHz
Modems
The word "modem" is a contraction of the words
modulator-demodulator.
A modem is typically used to send digital data over a
phone line.
The sending modem modulates the data into a signal
that is compatible with the phone line, and the
receiving modem demodulates the signal back into
digital data.
Wireless modems convert digital data into radio
signals and back.
 Inside the Modem: Modulator

• a modulator is used to convert the digital

computer network data into radio-frequency
signals for transmission.
• A QAM modulator
• A digital-to-analog (D/A) converter
 Inside the Modem: Demodulator

The most common demodulators have four functions.

A quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) demodulator
takes a radio-frequency signal that has had information
encoded in it by varying both the amplitude and phase of
the wave, and turns it into a simple signal that can be
processed by the analog-to-digital (A/D) converter.
The A/D converter takes the signal, which varies in voltage,
and turns it into a series of digital 1s and 0s.
An error correction module then checks the received
information against a known standard, so that problems in
transmission can be found and fixed.
• Modems came into existence in the 1960s as
a way to allow terminals to connect to
computers over the phone lines.
Modem speeds went through a series of steps at approximately two-year intervals:

300 bps - 1960s through 1983 or so

1200 bps - Gained popularity in 1984 and 1985
2400 bps
9600 bps - First appeared in late 1990 and early 1991
19.2 kilobits per second (Kbps)
28.8 Kbps
33.6 Kbps
56 Kbps - Became the standard in 1998
ADSL, with theoretical maximum of up to 8 megabits per
second (Mbps) - Gained popularity in 1999
 Modem Standards
There are many different types of modems available today.
Most modems support several standards so that they can
communicate with a variety of different modems.
Better modems can change data rates during transmission
to reduce the rate in case of noisy transmission (fast
retrain).
Modem Standards
 Modem Standards
• V.22
– 1200-2400 baud/bps, FSK
• V.32 and V.32bis
– full duplex at 9600 bps (2400 baud at QAM)
– bis uses TCM to achieve 14,400 bps.
• V.34 and V.34bis
– Works best for phone networks using digital transmission
beyond the local loop to reduce noise. Up to 28,800 bps
(TCM)
– bis up to 36,600 with TCM
 Modem Standards
• V.42bis
data compression modems, accomplished by run length
encoding, code book compression, Huffman encoding and
adaptive Huffman encoding
– MNP5 - uses Huffman encoding to attain 1.3:1 to 2:1
compression.
– bis uses Lempel-Ziv encoding and attains 3.5:1 to 4:1.
– V.42bis compression can be added to almost any modem
standard effectively tripling the data rate.
 Analog/Digital Modems (56k Modems)
The V.34+ modem is probably the fastest analog modem that will
be developed.
The basic idea behind 56K modems (V.90) is to take the basic
concepts of PCM both forwards and backwards.
The PSTN is already digitizing analog data, and sending it at
64Kbps. However, not all of these bit patterns are actually
available for data (one bit used for control), so the maximum
data rate becomes 56K.
 Analog/Digital Modems (56k Modems)

Noise is a critical issue. Tests found 56K modems to

connect at less than 40 Kbps 18% of the time, 40-50 Kbps
80% of the time, and 50+ Kbps only 2 % of the time.
It is easier to control noise in the channel transmitting from
the server to the client than in the opposite direction.
Because the current 56K technology is based on the PCM
standard, it cannot be used on services that do not use
this standard.
 Cable Modems
• Much more complicated than normal
modems
– Tuner, decoder, modulator, demodulator, router,
hub, etc.
– Bus architecture – scalability issues
– Downstream: 27Mbs per 6Mhz channel, QAM
– Upstream: more noise, 3Mbps per 2Mhz channel,
QPSK (2-3 bits per symbol)
 The analog signal
(audible)
is sent through
telephone lines.

011010001 MODEM MODEM 011010001

Digital signal
Digital signal

This modem converts This modem converts

digital to analog. analog to digital.
Internal
Modem External
Modem
 1
2

modem ->
ISDN adapter
Transmission
Modes
 Transmission Modes
• Defn: A transmission mode is the manner in
which data is sent over the underlying medium
Transmission modes can be divided into two fundamental
categories:

Serial — one bit is sent at a time

Serial transmission is further categorized according to timing of
transmissions

• Parallel — multiple bits are sent at the same time

A Taxonomy of Transmission Modes
 Parallel Transmission
• Parallel transmission allows transfers of multiple data bits at the same time
over separate media
• In general, parallel transmission is used with a wired medium that uses
multiple, independent wires
• Furthermore, the signals on all wires are synchronized so that a bit travels
across each of the wires at precisely the same time
Figure 4.32 Parallel transmission

4.286
 Parallel Transmission

• The figure omits two important details:

(1) In addition to the parallel wires that each carry data,
a parallel interface usually contains other wires that
allow the sender and receiver to coordinate
(2) To make installation and troubleshooting easy, the
wires for a parallel transmission system are placed in
a single physical cable
• A parallel mode of transmission has two chief
advantages:
(1) High speed: it can send N bits at the same time
• a parallel interface can operate N times faster than an
equivalent serial interface
(2) Match to underlying hardware: Internally, computer
and communication hardware uses parallel circuitry
• a parallel interface matches the internal hardware well
 Serial Transmission
• Serial transmission
– sends one bit at a time
• It may seem that anyone would choose parallel
transmission for high speeds
– However, most communication systems use serial
mode
• There are two main reasons
(1)serial networks can be extended over long distances
at less cost
(2)using only one physical wire means that there is
never a timing problem caused by one wire being
slightly longer than another
• Sender and receiver must contain a hardware
that converts data from the parallel form used in
the device to the serial form used on the wire
Serial Transmission
Figure 4.33 Serial transmission

4.293
 Serial Transmission
• The hardware needed to convert data between
an internal parallel form and a serial form can be
straightforward or complex
• In the simplest case, a single chip that is known
as a Universal Asynchronous Receiver and
Transmitter (UART) performs the conversion
• A related chip, Universal Synchronous-
Asynchronous Receiver and Transmitter (USART)
handles conversion for synchronous networks
 Timing of Serial Transmission
• Serial transmission mechanisms can be divided into
three broad categories (depending on how
transmissions are spaced in time):
• Asynchronous transmission can occur at any time
– with an arbitrary(uninformed) delay between the
transmission of two data items
• Synchronous transmission occurs continuously
– with no gap between the transmission of two data items
• Isochronous transmission occurs at regular intervals
– with a fixed gap between the transmission of two data items
 Asynchronous Transmission
• It is asynchronous if the system allows the physical medium to be idle for an
arbitrary time between two transmissions
• The asynchronous style of communication is well-suited to applications that
generate data at random(unsystematically)
– (e.g., a user typing on a keyboard or a user that clicks on a link)
• The disadvantage of asynchrony arises from the lack of coordination between
sender and receiver
– While the medium is idle, a receiver cannot know how long the medium will remain
idle before more data arrives
• Asynchronous technologies usually arrange for a sender to transmit a few extra
bits before each data item
– to inform the receiver that a data transfer is starting
– extra bits allow the receiver to synchronize with the incoming signal
– the extra bits are known as a preamble or start bits
 Asynchronous Character Transmission
This figure illustrates how voltage varies at different stages:
a start bit, eight bits of a character, and a stop bit are sent
Note

In asynchronous transmission, we send

1 start bit (0) at the beginning and 1 or
more stop bits (1s) at the end of each
byte. There may be a gap between
each byte.

4.299
Note

Asynchronous here means

“asynchronous at the byte level,”
but the bits are still synchronized;
their durations are the same.

4.300
Figure 4.34 Asynchronous transmission

4.301
 Synchronous Transmission
• A synchronous mechanism transmits bits of data continually
– with no idle time between bits
– after transmitting the final bit of one data byte, the sender transmits a bit of the
next data byte
• The sender and receiver constantly remain synchronized
– which means less synchronization overhead
• Compare the 8-bit characters on
– an asynchronous system as illustrated in Figure 9.5
– and a synchronous system as illustrated in Figure 9.6
• Each character sent using RS-232 requires an extra start bit and stop bit
– meaning that each 8-bit character requires a minimum of 10 bit times, even if no
idle time is inserted
• On a synchronous system
– each character is sent without start or stop bits
 Bytes, Blocks, and Frames
• If the underlying synchronous mechanism must send
bits continually
– What happens if a sender does not have data ready to send
at all times?
– The answer lies in a technique known as framing:
• an interface is added to a synchronous mechanism that accepts and
delivers a block of bytes known as a frame
– Most synchronous systems include an idle sequence
(or idle byte)
• that is transmitted when the sender has no data to
send
Bytes, Blocks, and Frames
Note

In synchronous transmission, we send

bits one after another without start or
stop bits or gaps. It is the responsibility
of the receiver to group the bits.

4.306
Figure 4.35 Synchronous transmission

4.307
 Isochronous Transmission
• Isochronous transmission
– is designed to provide steady(FIXED, STABLE) bit flow for multimedia applications

• Delivering such data at a steady rate is essential

– because variations in delay known as jitter can disrupt reception (cause pops or clicks in
audio/make video freeze for a short time)

• Isochronous network is designed to accept and send data at a fixed rate, R

– Network interface is such that data must be handed to the network for transmission at exactly
R bits per second

• For example, an isochronous mechanism designed to transfer voice operates at a rate of

64,000 bits per second
– A sender must generate digitized audio continuously

– A receiver must be able to accept and play the stream

• Multiplexing:
Frequency Division,
Time Division,
Wavelength Division;
Multiplexing :
Sharing a Medium

311
Categories of multiplexing
Introduction
Under the simplest conditions, a medium can carry only one
signal at any moment in time.
For multiple signals to share one medium, the medium must
somehow be divided, giving each signal a portion of the total
bandwidth.
The current techniques that can accomplish this include
• frequency division multiplexing (FDM)
• time division multiplexing (TDM)
• Synchronous vs statistical
• wavelength division multiplexing (WDM)

313
 Multiplexing

Multiplexor (MUX)
Demultiplexor (DEMUX)
Sometimes just called a MUX

314
 Multiplexing
• Two or more simultaneous transmissions
on a single circuit.
• Multiplexing costs less.

315
Frequency Division Multiplexing
Assignment of non-overlapping frequency ranges to each
“user” or signal on a medium. Thus, all signals are
transmitted at the same time, each using different frequencies.
A multiplexor accepts inputs and assigns frequencies to each
device.
The multiplexor is attached to a high-speed communications
line.
A corresponding multiplexor, or demultiplexor, is on the end
of the high-speed line and separates the multiplexed signals.

316
317
Frequency Division Multiplexing
Analog signaling is used to transmits the signals.
Uses of Frequency Division Multiplexing:
Broadcast radio and television, cable television, and the
cellular phone systems use frequency division multiplexing.
This technique is the oldest multiplexing technique.
Drawback:
Since it involves analog signaling, it is more susceptible to
noise.

318
FDM
 Note:

FDM is an analog multiplexing

technique that combines signals.
FDM process
FDM demultiplexing example
Example 1
Example 3
Analog hierarchy
Time Division Multiplexing
Sharing of the signal is accomplished by dividing available
transmission time on a medium among users.

Time division multiplexing comes in two basic forms:

1. Synchronous time division multiplexing, and
2. Statistical, or asynchronous time division multiplexing.

326
 Note:

TDM is a digital multiplexing technique

to combine data.
TDM frames
Synchronous Time Division
Multiplexing
The original time division multiplexing.
The multiplexor accepts input from attached devices in a
round-robin fashion and transmit the data in a never ending
pattern.
T-1 and ISDN telephone lines are common examples of
synchronous time division multiplexing.

329
330
Synchronous Time Division
Multiplexing
If one device generates data at a faster rate than other devices,
then the multiplexor buffer the faster incoming stream.
If a device has nothing to transmit, the multiplexor must still
insert a piece of data from that device into the multiplexed
stream.

331
Interleaving
333
334
 Synchronous time division multiplexing

So that the receiver may stay synchronized with the incoming

data stream, the transmitting multiplexor can insert
alternating 1s and 0s into the data stream.

335
Synchronous Time Division
Multiplexing
Three types popular today:
• T-1 multiplexing (the classic)
• ISDN multiplexing
• SONET (Synchronous Optical NETwork)

336
 Synchronous TDM

• Very popular
• Line will require as much bandwidth as all the
bandwidths of the sources

337
Statistical Time Division Multiplexing
A statistical multiplexor transmits only the data from active
workstations (or why work when you don’t have to).
If a workstation is not active, no space is wasted on the
multiplexed stream.
A statistical multiplexor accepts the incoming data streams
and creates a frame containing only the data to be transmitted.

338
339
To identify each piece of data, an address is included.

340
If the data is of variable size, a length is also included.

341
Statistical Time Division Multiplexing
A statistical multiplexor does not require a line over as high a
speed line as synchronous time division multiplexing since
STDM does not assume all sources will transmit all of the
time!
Good for low bandwidth lines (used for LANs)
Much more efficient use of bandwidth!

342
Wavelength Division Multiplexing
(WDM)
Give each message a different wavelength (frequency)
Easy to do with fiber optics and optical sources

343
 Note:

WDM is an analog multiplexing

technique to combine
optical signals.
Dense Wavelength Division
Multiplexing (DWDM)
Dense wavelength division multiplexing is often called just
wavelength division multiplexing
Dense wavelength division multiplexing multiplexes multiple
data streams onto a single fiber optic line.
Different wavelength lasers (called lambdas) transmit the
multiple signals.
Each signal carried on the fiber can be transmitted at a
different rate from the other signals.
Dense wavelength division multiplexing combines many (30,
40, 50, 60, more?) onto one fiber.
345
346
347
 What did we cover

• Multiplexing
• Types of multiplexing
– TDM
• Synchronous TDM (T-1, ISDN, optical fiber)
• Statistical TDM (LANs)
– FDM (cable, cell phones, broadband)
– WDM (optical fiber)

348
•Concept of
Topologies,
NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
• Network topology is the arrangement of the
various elements like links, node

• Essentially, it is the structure of a network, and

may be depicted physically or logically.

• A good example is a local area network (LAN).

• Physical topology refers to the layout of cabling,
the locations of nodes, and the interconnections
between the nodes and the cabling.

•  Logical topology shows how data flows within a

network, regardless of its physical design or the
way that the data passes through the network
from one device to the next without regard to
the physical interconnection of the devices.
 For example
• The original twisted pair
Ethernet using repeater hubs was a logical bus
topology with a physical star topology layout. 

• Token Ring is a logical ring topology, but is

wired a physical star from the Media Access
Unit.
• Linear Bus Topology

• Example:
• Distributed Bus Topology
• Bus Network
•  
• -Advantages
• Easy to implement and extend
• Well suited for temporary networks (quick setup)
• Initially less expensive than other topologies
• Cheap
• -Disadvantages
• Difficult to administer/troubleshoot.
• Limited cable length and number of stations.
• If there is a problem with the cable, the entire network goes down.
• Maintenance costs may be higher in the long run.
• Performance degrades as additional computers are added or on heavy traffic.
• Low security (all computers on the bus can see all data transmissions).
• One virus in the network will affect all of them (but not as badly as a star or ring network).
• Proper termination is required.(loop must be in closed path).
• If one node fails, the whole network will shut down.
• If many computers are attached, the amount of data flowing causes the network to slow down.
• Ring Topology

• Dual Ring Topology

• Ring Network
•  
• -Advantages
• Data is quickly transferred without a ‘bottle neck’. (very fast, all data traffic is in the same direction)
• The transmission of data is relatively simple as packets travel in one direction only.
• Adding additional nodes has very little impact on bandwidth
• It prevents network collisions because of the media access method or architecture required.
• -Disadvantages
• Data packets must pass through every computer between the sender and recipient therefore this
makes it slower.
• If any of the nodes fail then the ring is broken and data cannot be transmitted successfully.
• It is difficult to troubleshoot the ring.
• Because all stations are wired together, to add a station you must shut down the network
temporarily.
• In order for all computers to communicate with each other, all computers must be turned on.
• Total dependence upon the one cable
• Fully Connected Mesh
Topology

• Partially Connected Mesh

• Here every device has a point to point link to
every other device.
• Node1 must be connected with n-1 nodes.
• A fully connected mesh can have n(n-1)/2
physical channels to link n devices.
• Star Topology

• Distributed Star
• Star Network
 
• -Advantages
• Good performance
• easy to set up and to expand. Any non-centralised failure
will have very little effect on the network, whereas on a
ring network it would all fail with one fault
• -Disadvantages
• Expensive to install
• Extra hardware required
• Tree Topology
• Hybrid Topology
• Transmission Media:
Twisted pair, coaxial, fiber
optics, Wireless
Transmission (radio,
microwave & infrared);
Transmission media-Guided media(Wired
Transmissions)

Unguided media(Wireless
Transmission)
Figure 7.1 Transmission medium and physical layer
Figure 7.2 Classes of transmission media
7.1 Guided Media

Twisted-Pair Cable

Coaxial Cable

Fiber-Optic Cable
Figure 7.3 Twisted-pair cable
Figure 7.4 UTP and STP
Table 7.1 Categories of unshielded twisted-pair cables

Category Bandwidth Data Rate Digital/Analog Use

1 very low < 100 kbps Analog Telephone

2 < 2 MHz 2 Mbps Analog/digital T-1 lines

3 16 MHz 10 Mbps Digital LANs

4 20 MHz 20 Mbps Digital LANs

5 100 MHz 100 Mbps Digital LANs

6 (draft) 200 MHz 200 Mbps Digital LANs

7 (draft) 600 MHz 600 Mbps Digital LANs

Figure 7.5 UTP connector
Figure 7.6 UTP performance
 Advantages of Twisted Pair Cables:

• It is a thin, flexible cable that is easy to string

between walls.
• Electrical noise going into or coming from the cable
can be prevented.
• Cross-talk is minimized.
• 1. Cheaper and far easier to splice
2. Less susceptible to electrical interference caused
by nearby equipment or wires.
3. In turn are less likely to cause interference
themselves Because it is electrically "cleaner", STP
wire can carry data at a faster speed.
 Disadvantages :

• Skew
Figure 7.7 Coaxial cable
Table 7.2 Categories of coaxial cables

Category Impedance Use

(Radio
Guide) RG- 75 W Cable TV
59

RG-58 50 W Thin Ethernet

RG-11 50 W Thick Ethernet

Electrical impedance, or simply impedance, is the
measure of the opposition that an electrical circuit
presents to the passage of a current when a
voltage is applied.
A section of RG-59 cable with its end stripped.
A: outer plastic sheath
B: copper braid shield
C: inner dielectric insulator
D: copper-plated core (sometimes solid core)
 Figure 7.8 BNC connectors
The BNC connector (Bayonet Neill–Concelman) is a common type of RF
connector used for coaxial cable. It is used with radio, television, and other
radio-frequency electronic equipment, test instruments, video signals, and
was once a popular computer network connector. BNC connectors are made
to match the characteristic impedance of cable at either 50 ohms or 75 ohms.
Figure 7.9 Coaxial cable performance
 Advantages of Coaxial Cable:
• Broadband system—Coax has a sufficient frequency range to support multiple channels,
which allows for much greater throughput.
• Greater channel capacity—Each of the multiple channels offers substantial capacity. The
capacity depends on where you are in the world. In the North American system, each channel
in the cable TV system is 6MHz wide, according to the National Television Systems Committee
(NTSC) standard. In Europe, with the Phase Alternate Line (PAL) standard, the channels are
8MHz wide. Within one of these channels, you can provision high-speed Internet access—
that's how cable modems operate. But that one channel is now being shared by everyone
using that coax from that neighborhood node, which can range from 200 to 2,000 homes.
• Greater bandwidth—Compared to twisted-pair, coax provides greater bandwidth
systemwide, and it also offers greater bandwidth for each channel. Because it has greater
bandwidth per channel, it supports a mixed range of services. Voice, data, and even video
and multimedia can benefit from the enhanced capacity.
• Lower error rates—Because the inner conductor is in a Faraday shield, noise immunity is
improved, and coax has lower error rates and therefore slightly better performance than
twisted-pair. The error rate is generally 10–9 (i.e., 1 in 1 billion) bps.
• cable shielding reduces noise and crosstalk.
• The primary advantage of coaxial cable compared to twisted pair is the braided metal shield
is very good at blocking electromagnetic signals from entering the cable and producing
noise. 
The main disadvantages of coax are as
follows:
• Problems with the deployment architecture—The bus topology in which
coax is deployed is susceptible to congestion, noise, and security risks.

• High installation costs—Installation costs in the local environment are

high.

• Susceptible to damage from lightning strikes—Coax may be damaged by

lightning strikes. People who live in an area with a lot of lightning strikes
must be wary because if that lightning is conducted by a coax, it could
very well fry the equipment at the end of it.

• 1. Thick coaxial is that it does not bend easily and is difficult to install.
Fiber Optics
Figure 7.11 Optical fiber
Figure 7.12 Propagation modes
Figure 7.13 Modes
In fiber optics, a graded-index or gradient-index fiber is an optical fiber whose
core has a refractive index that decreases with increasing radial distance from
the fiber axis.

In optics the refractive index or index of refraction of a substance or medium

is a measure of the speed of light in that medium.
Table 7.3 Fiber types

Type Core Cladding Mode

50/125 50 125 Multimode, graded-index

62.5/125 62.5 125 Multimode, graded-index

100/125 100 125 Multimode, graded-index

7/125 7 125 Single-mode

Figure 7.14 Fiber construction
DuPont Kevlar is a para-aramid (aromatic polyamide) fiber that comes in
different forms, each suited to a specific set of consumer and industrial
applications.
A cross section of a modern submarine
communications cable.
1 – Polyethylene
2 – Mylar tape
3 – Stranded steel wires
4 – Aluminium water barrier
5 – Polycarbonate
6 – Copper or aluminium tube
7 – Petroleum jelly
8 – Optical fibers
Figure 7.15 Fiber-optic cable connectors

SC - Subscriber Connector or ST - Straight Tip

square connector or
Standard Connector
 Advantages of Fiber Optics :
• Less expensive - Several miles of optical cable can be made
cheaper than equivalent lengths of copper wire. This saves
your provider (cable TV, Internet) and your money. 

• Thinner - Optical fibers can be drawn to smaller diameters

than copper wire. 

• Higher carrying capacity - Because optical fibers are thinner

than copper wires, more fibers can be bundled into a given-
diameter cable than copper wires. This allows more phone
lines to go over the same cable or more channels to come
through the cable into your cable TV box.
• Less signal degradation - The loss of signal in optical fiber is less than in
copper wire. 

• Light signals - Unlike electrical signals in copper wires, light signals from
one fiber do not interfere with those of other fibers in the same cable.
This means clearer phone conversations or TV reception. 

• Low power - Because signals in optical fibers degrade less, lower-power

transmitters can be used instead of the high-voltage electrical transmitters
needed for copper wires. Again, this saves your provider and your money. 

• Digital signals - Optical fibers are ideally suited for carrying digital
information, which is especially useful in computer networks.
• Non-flammable - Because no electricity is passed
through optical fibers, there is no fire hazard.

• Lightweight - An optical cable weighs less than a

comparable copper wire cable. Fiber-optic cables
take up less space in the ground. 

• Flexible - Because fiber optics are so flexible and can

transmit and receive light, they are used in many
flexible digital cameras.
7.2 Unguided Media: Wireless

Radio Waves

Microwaves

Infrared
Figure 7.17 Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless communication
Figure 7.18 Propagation methods
Table 7.4 Bands
Band Range Propagation Application

VLF 3–30 KHz Ground Long-range radio navigation

Radio and
LF 30–300 KHz Ground
navigational locators
MF 300 KHz–3 MHz Sky AM radio

HF 3–30 MHz Sky ship/aircraft communication

Sky and VHF TV,

VHF 30–300 MHz
line-of-sight FM radio
UHF TV, cellular phones,
UHF 300 MHz–3 GHz Line-of-sight
paging, satellite

SHF 3–30 GHz Line-of-sight Satellite communication

EHF 30–300 GHz Line-of-sight Long-range radio navigation

Figure 7.19 Wireless transmission waves
Figure 7.20 Omnidirectional antennas
 Note:

Radio waves are used for multicast

communications, such as radio and
television, and paging systems.
Figure 7.21 Unidirectional antennas
 Note:

Microwaves are used for unicast

communication such as cellular
telephones, satellite networks, and
wireless LANs.
 Note:

Infrared signals can be used for short-

range communication using line-of-
sight propagation.
Message
switching, Circuit
Switching & Packet
Switching
 Switching Techniques

 In large networks there might be

multiple paths linking sender and
receiver.

 Information may be switched as it

travels through various
communication channels.
There are three typical switching techniques:

Circuit Switching
Message Switching
Packet Switching
 Circuit Switching
• Circuit switching is a technique that directly
connects the sender and the receiver in an
unbroken path.

• Telephone switching equipment, for

example, establishes a path that connects
the caller's telephone to the receiver's
telephone by making a physical connection.
• With this type of switching technique, once a
connection is established, a dedicated path
exists between both ends until the connection
is terminated.
• Routing decisions must be made when the
circuit is first established, but there are no
decisions made after that time.
 Circuit Switching

• Circuit switching in a network

operates almost the same way as
the telephone system works.
• A complete end-to-end path must
exist before communication can
take place.
• The computer initiating the data transfer must
ask for a connection to the destination.

• Once the connection has been initiated and

completed to the destination device, the
destination device must acknowledge that it is
ready and willing to carry on a transfer.
 Circuit switching

Advantages:
• The communication channel (once
established) is dedicated.
Disadvantages:
Possible long wait to establish a connection, (10
seconds, more on long- distance or international calls.)
during which no data can be transmitted.

More expensive than any other switching techniques, because a

dedicated path is required for each connection.

Inefficient use of the communication channel, because the

channel is not used when the connected systems are not using it.
 Message Switching

• With message switching there is no need to

establish a dedicated path between two
stations.
• When a station sends a message, the
destination address is appended to the
message.
• The message is then transmitted through the
network, in its entirety, from node to node.
• Each node receives the entire message, stores
it in its entirety on disk, and then transmits
the message to the next node.

• This type of network is called a store-and-

forward network.
Message Switching
A message-switching node is typically a general-
purpose computer.

The device needs sufficient secondary-storage capacity

to store the incoming messages, which could be long.

A time delay is introduced using this type of scheme

due to store- and-forward time, plus the time required
to find the next node in the transmission path.
 Also known as a "best-effort
network" or a network supporting
the connection-less network
service.
 Message Switching

Advantages:
• Channel efficiency can be greater compared to circuit-
switched systems, because more devices are sharing the
channel.
• Traffic congestion can be reduced, because messages may
be temporarily stored in route.
• Message priorities can be established due to store-and-
forward technique.
• Message broadcasting can be achieved with the use of
broadcast address appended in the message.
 Message Switching
Disadvantages
• Message switching is not compatible with
interactive applications.

• Store-and-forward devices are expensive,

because they must have large disks to hold
potentially long messages.
E-mail is example of a message
switching system.
 Packet Switching
• Packet switching can be seen as a solution that tries to
combine the advantages of message and circuit switching
and to minimize the disadvantages of both.
There are two methods of
packet switching:

Datagram

and virtual circuit.

 Packet Switching
• In both packet switching methods, a
message is broken into small parts, called
packets.
• Each packet is tagged with appropriate
source and destination addresses.
• Since packets have a strictly defined
maximum length, they can be stored in
main memory instead of disk, therefore
access delay and cost are minimized.
Also the transmission speeds, between
nodes, are optimized.

With current technology, packets are

generally accepted onto the network on a
first-come, first-served basis.

If the network becomes overloaded,

packets are delayed or discarded
(``dropped'').
 Packet size

• The size of the packet can vary from 180 bits, the size for
the Datakit® virtual circuit switch designed by Bell Labs for
communications and business applications; to 1,024 or
2,048 bits for the 1PSS® switch, also designed by Bell Labs
for public data networking; to 53 bytes for ATM switching,
such as Lucent Technologies' packet switches.
 Packet switching

 In packet switching, the analog signal from your

phone is converted into a digital data stream.
 That series of digital bits is then divided into
relatively tiny clusters of bits, called packets.
 Each packet has at its beginning the digital
address -- a long number -- to which it is being
sent.
 The system blasts out all those tiny packets, as
fast as it can, and they travel across the nation's
digital backbone systems to their destination:
the telephone, or rather the telephone system,
of the person you're calling.
• They do not necessarily travel together; they
do not travel sequentially.
• They don't even all travel via the same route.
• But eventually they arrive at the right point --
that digital address added to the front of each
string of digital data -- and at their destination
are reassembled into the correct order, then
converted to analog form, so your friend can
understand what you're saying.
 Packet Switching: Datagram
• Datagram packet switching is similar to message
switching in that each packet is a self-contained unit
with complete addressing information attached.

•This fact allows packets to take a variety of possible

paths through the network.

•So the packets, each with the same destination

address, do not follow the same route, and they may
arrive out of sequence at the exit point node (or the
destination).
Reordering is done at the destination point
based on the sequence number of the
packets.

It is possible for a packet to be destroyed if

one of the nodes on its way is crashed
momentarily. Thus all its queued packets
may be lost.
 Packet Switching:Virtual Circuit
• In the virtual circuit approach, a preplanned route is established
before any data packets are sent.
• A logical connection is established when
 a sender send a "call request packet" to the receiver and
 the receiver send back an acknowledge packet "call accepted
packet" to the sender if the receiver agrees on conversational
parameters.
• The conversational parameters can be maximum packet sizes,
path to be taken, and other variables necessary to establish and
maintain the conversation.
• Virtual circuits imply acknowledgements, flow control, and error
control, so virtual circuits are reliable.
• That is, they have the capability to inform upper-protocol layers
if a transmission problem occurs.
 Packet Switching:Virtual Circuit

• In virtual circuit, the route between stations does not mean that
this is a dedicated path, as in circuit switching.
• A packet is still buffered at each node and queued for output over
a line.
• The difference between virtual circuit and datagram approaches:

 With virtual circuit, the node does not need to make a routing
decision for each packet.
 It is made only once for all packets using that virtual circuit.
 Packet Switching: Virtual Circuit

VC's offer guarantees that

 the packets sent arrive in the order sent

 with no duplicates or omissions
 with no errors (with high probability)
regardless of how they are implemented internally.
 Advantages of packet switching

Advantages:
• Packet switching is cost effective, because switching
devices do not need massive amount of secondary
storage.
• Packet switching offers improved delay characteristics,
because there are no long messages in the queue
(maximum packet size is fixed).
• Packet can be rerouted if there is any problem, such as,
busy or disabled links.
• The advantage of packet switching is that many
network users can share the same channel at the same
time. Packet switching can maximize link efficiency by
making optimal use of link bandwidth.
 Disadvantages of packet switching
Disadvantages:
• Protocols for packet switching are typically more complex.
• It can add some initial costs in implementation.
• If packet is lost, sender needs to retransmit the data.
• Another disadvantage is that packet-switched systems still
can’t deliver the same quality as dedicated circuits in
applications requiring very little delay - like voice
conversations or moving images.
• ADDITIONAL READING
IS STRONGLY
RECOMMENDED