Communications and Services

Certifications

2
3
 CCNA Exam
Exam Number – 200-301
Total Marks - 1000
Duration – 120 Min
Passing score – Passing score varies, but it is traditionally
around 800-850 out of 1000
Questions -Unstated to date Multiple Choice
Question types: Multiple Choice (single and
multiple answers), drag-and-drop, Sim, Simlet, Testlet

4
 Benefits
Enhanced Learning Curve
 enhance your knowledge of understanding
the core concepts of Cisco networking.
 Potential Employer
Global Acceptance
The CCNA certification is globally accepted in different
countries of the world.

5
Cisco Icons and Symbols

6
 Data Networks

Sharing data through the use of floppy disks is not an efficient

or cost-effective manner.

Businesses needed a solution that would successfully address

the following three problems:
• How to avoid duplication of equipment and resources
• How to communicate efficiently
• How to set up and manage a network

Businesses realized that networking technology could increase

productivity while saving money.

7
 Networking Devices

Equipment that connects directly to a network segment is

referred to as a device.

These devices are broken up into two classifications.

 End-user devices
 Network devices

End-user devices include computers, printers, scanners, and

other devices that provide services directly to the user.

Network devices include all the devices that connect the end-
user devices together to allow them to communicate.
8
 Network Interface Card

A network interface card (NIC) is a printed circuit board

that provides network communication capabilities to and
from a personal computer. Also called a LAN adapter.

9
 Hub
Connects a group of Hosts

10
 Switch

Switches add more

intelligence to data transfer
management.

11
 Router
Routers are used to connect networks together
Route packets of data from one network to another
Cisco became the de facto standard of routers because of their high-
quality router products
Routers, by default, break up a broadcast domain

12
 Network Topologies
Network topology defines the structure of the network.

One part of the topology definition is the physical topology,

which is the actual layout of the wire or media.

The other part is the logical topology,which defines how the

media is accessed by the hosts for sending data.

13
Small office-home office

14
Campus LAN

15
Tier 2 Topology

16
Tier 3 Topology

17
Data center design

18
 Spine and leaf
Leaf-spine is a two-layer network topology composed of
leaf switches and spine switches.
Leaf-spine is a two-layer data center network topology that's
useful for data centers that experience more east-west
network traffic than north-south traffic. The topology is
composed of leaf switches (to which servers and storage
connect) and spine switches (to which leaf switches
connect). Leaf switches mesh into the spine, forming the
access layer that delivers network connection points for
servers.

19
Spine and leaf

20
 LANs, MANs, & WANs

One early solution was the creation of local-area network

(LAN) standards which provided an open set of guidelines for
creating network hardware and software, making equipment
from different companies compatible.

What was needed was a way for information to move

efficiently and quickly, not only within a company, but also
from one business to another.

The solution was the creation of metropolitan-area networks

(MANs) and wide-area networks (WANs).
21
LANs

22
WANs

23
The internet

24
 On-premises vs cloud network

A on-premises network is a network within the organization that can be securely accessed
by only the employees. It is like the corporate IT network. On the contrary, a public network
can be accessed by any user and is an untrusted network. EAA Client allows secure access to
configured applications by tunneling traffic through the user’s machine. This is beneficial,
when the employees are in a public network. However, when they are within the corporate
network perimeter, this increases the delay. The reason is there is an additional hop from the
application server to the Enterprise Application Access management POP, and then to the
employee's machine (black path).

What is cloud computing?

Cloud computing is when an organization stores and accesses data, solutions, programs and
applications over the internet rather than storing it and accessing it from the computer’s hard
drive or a server in the building.

25
On-promises vs cloud services

26
Hybrid cloud

27
 Virtual Private Network
A VPN is a private network that is constructed within a public network
infrastructure such as the global Internet. Using VPN, a telecommuter
can access the network of the company headquarters through the
Internet by building a secure tunnel between the telecommuter’s PC
and a VPN router in the headquarters.

28
Bandwidth

29
Measuring Bandwidth

30
Internetworking Devices

31
 What Are The Components Of A
Network ?
Home Mobile
Office Users

Internet

Branch Office Main Office

32
 Network Structure &
Hierarchy
Core Layer

Distribution
Layer

Access
Layer

33
 Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE) 802 Standards
 IEEE 802.1: Standards related to network management.

 IEEE 802.2: General standard for the data link layer in the OSI
Reference Model. The IEEE divides this layer into two sublayers --
the logical link control (LLC) layer and the media access control
(MAC) layer.

 IEEE 802.3: Defines the MAC layer for bus networks that use
CSMA/CD. This is the basis of the Ethernet standard.

 IEEE 802.4: Defines the MAC layer for bus networks that use a
token-passing mechanism (token bus networks).

 IEEE 802.5: Defines the MAC layer for token-ring networks.

 IEEE 802.6: Standard for Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs) 34

35
 Why do we need the OSI Model?

To address the problem of networks increasing in size and in number, the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) researched many
network schemes and recognized that there was a need to create a network
model

This would help network builders implement networks that could

communicate and work together

ISO therefore, released the OSI reference model in 1984.

36
 Don’t Get Confused.

ISO - International Organization for Standardization

OSI - Open System Interconnection

IOS - Internetwork Operating System

To avoid confusion, some people say “International

Standard Organization.”

37
 The OSI Reference Model

7 Application The OSI Model will be

used throughout your
6 Presentation
entire networking
5 Session career!
4 Transport
3 Network
Memorize it!
2 Data Link
1 Physical

38
 OSI Model
Application
Application
(Upper) Presentation
Layers
Session

Transport

Network
Data Flow
Layers
Data-Link

Physical

39
Layer 7 - The Application Layer

7 Application This layer deal with

networking
6 Presentation
applications.
5 Session
4 Transport Examples:
 Email
3 Network  Web browsers
2 Data Link
PDU - User Data
1 Physical

Each of the layers have Protocol Data Unit (PDU)

40
Layer 6 - The Presentation Layer

7 Application This layer is responsible

for presenting the data in
6 Presentation
the required format which
5 Session may include:
4 Transport Code Formatting
Encryption
3 Network Compression
2 Data Link
PDU - Formatted Data
1 Physical

41
 Layer 5 - The Session Layer

7 Application This layer establishes, manages, and

terminates sessions between two
communicating hosts.
6 Presentation Creates Virtual Circuit
Coordinates communication between systems
5 Session Organize their communication by offering
three different modes
4 Transport Simplex
Half Duplex
3 Network Full Duplex

2 Data Link
Example:
1 Physical  Client Software
( Used for logging in)
42
PDU - Formatted Data
 Half Duplex
• It uses only one wire pair with a digital signal running in
both directions on the wire.

• It also uses the CSMA/CD protocol to help prevent

collisions and to permit retransmitting if a collision does
occur.

• If a hub is attached to a switch, it must operate in half-

duplex mode because the end stations must be able to
detect collisions.

• Half-duplex Ethernet—typically 10BaseT—is only about

30 to 40 percent efficient because a large 10BaseT
network will usually only give you 3 to 4Mbps—at most.43
 Full Duplex
In a network that uses twisted-pair cabling, one pair is used to carry the transmitted
signal from one node to the other node. A separate pair is used for the return or
received signal. It is possible for signals to pass through both pairs simultaneously.
The capability of communication in both directions at once is known as full duplex.

44
 Layer 4 - The Transport Layer

7 Application This layer breaks up the data from the

sending host and then reassembles it in the
6 Presentation receiver.

5 Session It also is used to insure reliable data

transport across the network.
4 Transport Can be reliable or unreliable
Sequencing
3 Network Acknowledgment
Retransmission
2 Data Link Flow Control

1 Physical PDU - Segments

45
 Layer 3 - The Network Layer
Sometimes referred to as the “Cisco Layer”.
7 Application End to End Delivery
Provide logical addressing that routers use for
6 Presentation path determination
Segments are encapsulated
5 Session Internetwork Communication
Packet forwarding
4 Transport Packet Filtering
Makes “Best Path Determination”
3 Network Fragmentation

2 Data Link PDU – Packets – IP/IPX

1 Physical

46
 Layer 2 - The Data Link Layer
Performs Physical Addressing
7 Application This layer provides reliable transit of
data across a physical link.
6 Presentation Combines bits into bytes and
bytes into frames
5 Session Access to media using MAC address
Error detection, not correction
LLC and MAC
4 Transport Logical Link Control performs Link
establishment
3 Network MAC Performs Access method

2 Data Link
1 Physical PDU - Frames
Preamble DMAC SMAC Data length DATA FCS
47
 Layer 1 - The Physical Layer

7 Application
6 Presentation
This is the physical media
5 Session through which the data,
represented as electronic signals,
4 Transport is sent from the source host to
3 Network the destination host.

2 Data Link Move bits between devices

Encoding
1 Physical
PDU - Bits

48
 Data Encapsulation
Application
Presentation
Session
PDU
Upper-Layer Data

Transport Segment
TCP Header Upper-Layer Data

Network Packet
IP Header Data

LLC Header Data FCS

Data-Link Frame

MAC Header Data FCS

Physical Bits
0101110101001000010
49
Data Encapsulation

50
 OSI Model Analogy
Application Layer - Source Host

After riding your new bicycle a few times in

Bangalore, you decide that you want to give it to
a friend who lives in DADAR, Mumbai. 51
 OSI Model Analogy
Presentation Layer - Source Host

Make sure you have the proper directions to

disassemble and reassemble the bicycle.
52
 OSI Model Analogy
Session Layer - Source Host

Call your friend and make sure you have his

correct address.
53
 OSI Model Analogy
Transport Layer - Source Host

Disassemble the bicycle and put different pieces

in different boxes. The boxes are labeled
“1 of 3”, “2 of 3”, and “3 of 3”. 54
 OSI Model Analogy
Network Layer - Source Host

Put your friend's complete mailing address (and

yours) on each box.Since the packages are too
big for your mailbox (and since you don’t have
enough stamps) you determine that you need to
go to the post office. 55
 OSI Model Analogy
Data Link Layer – Source Host

Bangalore post office takes possession of the

boxes.
56
 OSI Model Analogy
Physical Layer - Media

The boxes are flown from Bangalore to Mumbai.

57
 OSI Model Analogy
Data Link Layer - Destination

Dadar post office receives your boxes.

58
 OSI Model Analogy
Network Layer - Destination

Upon examining the destination address,

Dadar post office determines that your
boxes should be delivered to your written
home address. 59
 OSI Model Analogy
Transport Layer - Destination

Your friend calls you and tells you he got all 3

boxes and he is having another friend named
BOB reassemble the bicycle. 60
 OSI Model Analogy
Session Layer - Destination

Your friend hangs up because he is done talking

to you.
61
 OSI Model Analogy
Presentation Layer - Destination

BOB is finished and “presents” the bicycle to

your friend. Another way to say it is that your
friend is finally getting him “present”. 62
 OSI Model Analogy
Application Layer - Destination

Your friend enjoys riding his new bicycle in

Dadar.
63
Data Flow Through a Network

64
 Type of Transmission
Unicast
Multicast
Broadcast

65
Type of Transmission

66
 Broadcast Domain
 A group of devices receiving broadcast frames
initiating from any device within the group

 Routers do not forward broadcast frames,

broadcast domains are not forwarded from one
broadcast to another.

67
 Collision
 The effect of two nodes sending transmissions
simultaneously in Ethernet. When they meet on the
physical media, the frames from each node collide and
are damaged.

68
 Collision Domain
 The network area in Ethernet over which frames
that have collided will be detected.
 Collisions are propagated by hubs and repeaters
 Collisions are Not propagated by switches,
routers, or bridges

69
 Physical Layer

Defines

EIA/TIA-232
• Media type

Ethernet

802.3
Physical

V.35
• Connector type

• Signaling type
802.3 is responsible for LANs based on the carrier sense multiple access
collision detect (CSMA/CD) access methodology. Ethernet is an example
of a CSMA/CD network.

70
 Physical Layer:
Ethernet/802.3

10Base2—Thin Ethernet
10Base5—Thick Ethernet

Host
Hub
10BaseT—Twisted Pair

Hosts

71
 Device Used At Layer 1

Physical

A B C D

• All devices are in the same collision domain.

• All devices are in the same broadcast domain.
• Devices share the same bandwidth. 72
 Hubs & Collision Domains

• More end stations means

more collisions.
• CSMA/CD is used.

73
 Layer 2

MAC Layer—802.3
Number of Bytes 8 6 6 2 Variable 4
Preamble Destination Address Source Address Length Data FCS

Ethernet II
uses “Type”
0000.0C xx.xxxx here and
does not use
IEEE Assigned Vendor 802.2.
Assigned

MAC Address
synchronize senders and receivers
74
 Devices On Layer 2
(Switches & Bridges)
Data-Link

1 2 3 4 OR 1 2

• Each segment has its own collision domain.

• All segments are in the same broadcast domain.
75
 Switches

Switch
Memory
• Each segment is its
own collision domain.
• Broadcasts are
forwarded to all
segments.

76
 Layer 3 : Network Layer

Network
• Defines logical IP, IPX
source and
destination

Frame Relay
Data-Link
addresses 802.2

HDLC
associated with a

Ethernet
specific protocol
• Defines paths
Physical
802.3
EIA/TIA-232
through network V.35

77
 Layer 3 : (cont.)

Network Layer End-Station Packet

Source Destination
IP Header Data
Address Address

Logical
Address
172.15.1.1
Network Node
Route determination occurs at this layer, so a packet must include a source and
destination address.
Network-layer addresses have two components: a network component for
internetwork routing, and a node number for a device-specific address. The
example in the figure is an example of an IP packet and address.
78
 Layer 3 (cont.)

Address Mask
172.16.122.204 255.255.0.0
172 16 122 204
Binary
Address 10101100 00010000 01111010 11001100
255 255 0 0
Binary
Mask 11111111 11111111 00000000 00000000

Network Host

79
 Device On Layer 3
Router
• Broadcast control
• Multicast control
• Optimal path
determination
• Traffic management
• Logical addressing
• Connects to WAN
services

80
 Layer 4 : Transport Layer
• Distinguishes between
upper-layer applications

Transport
• Establishes end-to-end
connectivity between TCP UDP SPX
applications
• Defines flow control

Network
IP IPX
• Provides reliable or
unreliable services for
data transfer

81
 Reliable Service

Sender Receiver
Synchronize

Acknowledge, Synchronize

Acknowledge

Connection Established

Data Transfer
(Send Segments)

82
 How They Operate
Hub Bridge Switch Router

Collision Domains:
1 4 4 4
Broadcast Domains:
1 1 1 4
83
84
 Why Another Model?

Although the OSI reference model is universally recognized, the

historical and technical open standard of the Internet is
Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol (TCP/IP).

The TCP/IP reference model and the TCP/IP protocol stack

make data communication possible between any two
computers, anywhere in the world, at nearly the speed of light.

The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) created the TCP/IP

reference model because it wanted a network that could survive
any conditions, even a nuclear war. 85
 TCP/IP Protocol Stack

7 Application

6 Presentation 5

Session Application
5
4
4 Transport Transport
3
3
Network Internet
2
2
Data-Link Data-Link
1
1 Physical Physical

86
Application Layer Overview

File Transfer
- TFTP*
- FTP*
- NFS
E-Mail
- SMTP
Remote Login
Application
- Telnet*
- rlogin*
Transport Network Management
- SNMP*
Internet Name Management
- DNS*
Data-Link

*Used by the Router

Physical
87
 Transport Layer Overview

Transmission Control Connection-

Application Protocol (TCP) Oriented

Transport User Datagram Connectionless

Protocol (UDP)
Internet

Data-Link

Physical

88
 TCP Segment Format
Bit 0 Bit 15 Bit 16 Bit 31

Source Port (16) Destination Port (16)

Sequence Number (32)

Acknowledgment Number (32) 20

Bytes
Header
Length (4) Reserved (6) Code Bits (6) Window (16)

Checksum (16) Urgent (16)

Options (0 or 32 if Any)

Data (Varies)
89
 Port Numbers

F T S D T S R
T E M N F N I
Application P
Layer
P L T S T M
N P P P
E
T

21 23 25 53 69 161 520 Port

Transport Numbers
Layer TCP UDP

90
 TCP Port Numbers

Source Destination
…
Port Port

Telnet Z
Host A Host Z

SP DP Destination port = 23.

1028 23 … Send packet to my
Telnet
application.

91
TCP Port Numbers

92
 TCP Three-Way
Handshake/Open Connection
Host A Host B

Send SYN
1 (seq = 100 ctl = SYN)
SYN Received

Send SYN, ACK 2

SYN Received (seq = 300 ack = 101
ctl = syn,ack)
Established
3 (seq = 101 ack = 301
ctl = ack)

93
Opening & Closing Connection

94
 Windowing
• Windowing in networking means the quantity of data
segments which is measured in bytes that a machine
can transmit/send on the network without receiving an
acknowledgement

95
TCP Simple Acknowledgment
Sender Receiver
Send 1
Receive 1
Send ACK 2
Receive ACK 2

Send 2
Receive 2
Send ACK 3
Receive ACK 3
Send 3
Receive 3

Receive ACK 4 Send ACK 4

• Window Size = 1 96
 TCP Sequence and
Acknowledgment Numbers
Source Destination Sequence Acknowledgment
…
Port Port

I just
sent number
I just got number
11.
11, now I need
number 12.
Source
Source Dest.
Dest. Seq.
Seq. Ack.
Ack.

Source Dest. Seq. Ack.

1028 23 10 100

23 1028 100 11

1028 23 11 101 Source Dest. Seq. Ack.

23 1028 101 12 97
 Windowing

 There are two window sizes—one set to 1 and one set to

3.
 When you’ve configured a window size of 1, the sending
machine waits for an acknowledgment for each data
segment it transmits before transmitting another
 If you’ve configured a window size of 3, it’s allowed to
transmit three data segments before an
acknowledgment is received.

98
Windowing

99
Transport Layer Reliable Delivery

100
 Flow Control
 Another function of the transport layer is to provide
optional flow control.

 Flow control is used to ensure that networking devices

don’t send too much information to the destination,
overflowing its receiving buffer space, and causing it to
drop the sent information

 The purpose of flow control is to ensure the destination

doesn't get overrun by too much information sent by the
source
101
 Flow Control
3072
SEQ 1024 3
A
SEQ 2048 B

SEQ 3072

Win 0
30 73
A c k

2
i n 30 7
30 73 W
Ac k

102
 User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is the connectionless transport protocol

in the TCP/IP protocol stack.

UDP is a simple protocol that exchanges datagrams, without

acknowledgments or guaranteed delivery. Error processing and
retransmission must be handled by higher layer protocols.

UDP is designed for applications that do not need to put sequences of

segments together.

The protocols that use UDP include:

• TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol)
• SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)
• DHCP (Dynamic Host Control Protocol)
• DNS (Domain Name System)
103
 UDP Segment Format
Bit
1 0 Bit 15 Bit 16 Bit 31

Source Port (16) Destination Port (16)

8
Bytes
Length (16) Checksum (16)

Data (if Any)

• No sequence or acknowledgment fields

104
TCP vs UDP

105
 Internet Layer Overview

Internet Protocol (IP)

Application
Internet Control Message
Transport Protocol (ICMP)

Internet Address Resolution

Protocol (ARP)
Data-Link
Reverse Address
Physical Resolution Protocol (RARP)

• In the OSI reference model, the network layer

corresponds to the TCP/IP Internet layer. 106
 IP Datagram
Bit
1 0 Bit 15 Bit 16 Bit 31
Version Header Priority &Type
(4) Length (4) Total Length (16)
of Service (8)
Flags
Identification (16) (3) Fragment Offset (13)

Time-to-Live (8) Protocol (8) Header Checksum (16) 20

Bytes
Source IP Address (32)

Destination IP Address (32)

Options (0 or 32 if Any)

Data (Varies if Any)

107
 Protocol Field

Transport
TCP UDP
Layer

6 17 Protocol
Numbers
Internet
Layer IP

• Determines destination upper-layer protocol

108
Internet Control Message
Protocol

Application

Transport Destination
1 Unreachable
ICMP
Echo (Ping)
Internet
Other
Data-Link

Physical

109
 Address Resolution Protocol
I need the
I heard that broadcast.
Ethernet
The message is for me.
address of
Here is my Ethernet
176.16.3.2.
address.

172.16.3.1 172.16.3.2

IP: 172.16.3.2 = ???

IP: 172.16.3.2
Ethernet: 0800.0020.1111

• Map IP MAC
• Local ARP
110
 Reverse ARP

I heard that
broadcast.
What is
Your IP
my IP
address is
address?
172.16.3.25.

Ethernet: 0800.0020.1111 IP = ???

Ethernet: 0800.0020.1111
IP: 172.16.3.25

• Map MAC IP
111
112
 Origin of Ethernet

Found by Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (PARC) in

1975
Original designed as a 2.94 Mbps system to connect
100 computers on a 1 km cable
Later, Xerox, Intel and DEC drew up a standard
support 10 Mbps – Ethernet II
Basis for the IEEE’s 802.3 specification
Most widely used LAN technology in the world

113
10 Mbps IEEE Standards - 10BaseT

• 10BaseT  10 Mbps, baseband,

Unshielded twisted-pair
over Twisted-pair cable
• Running Ethernet over twisted-pair
wiring as specified by IEEE 802.3
• Configure in a star pattern
• Twisting the wires reduces EMI
• Fiber Optic has no EMI RJ-45 Plug and Socket

114
 Twisted Pair Cables

 Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable (UTP)

most popular
maximum length 100 m
prone to noise

Category 1 Voice transmission of traditional telephone

Category 2 For data up to 4 Mbps, 4 pairs full-duplex
Category 3 For data up to 10 Mbps, 4 pairs full-duplex
Category 4 For data up to 16 Mbps, 4 pairs full-duplex
Category 5 For data up to 100 Mbps, 4 pairs full-duplex
Category 6 For data up to 1000 Mbps, 4 pairs full-duplex
115
 Baseband VS Broadband

 Baseband Transmission
 Entire channel is used to transmit a single digital signal
 Complete bandwidth of the cable is used by a single signal
 The transmission distance is shorter
 The electrical interference is lower

 Broadband Transmission
 Use analog signaling and a range of frequencies
 Continuous signals flow in the form of waves
 Support multiple analog transmission (channels)

Baseband Modem Broadband

Network 116
Transmission Transmission
Card
Straight-through cable

117
Straight-through cable pinout

118
Crossover cable

119
Crossover cable

120
Rollover cable

121
Rollover cable pinout

122
 Straight-Thru or Crossover

Use straight-through cables for the following cabling:

 Switch to router
 Switch to PC or server
 Hub to PC or server

Use crossover cables for the following cabling:

 Switch to switch
 Switch to hub
 Hub to hub
 Router to router
 PC to PC
 Router to PC
123
124
 Decimal to Binary
172
172 – Base 10

1 2
100 = 1
10 70 101 = 10
100 100 102 = 100
1000
172 103 = 1000

10101100

20 = 1
21 = 2
1
10101100– Base 2 2
0
0 22 = 4
4 4 23 = 8
8 8
16 0
24 = 16
32 32 25 = 32
64 0 26 = 64
128 128
27 = 128
172

125
 Base 2 Number System

101102 = (1 x 24 = 16) + (0 x 23 = 0) + (1 x 22 = 4) +
(1 x 21 = 2) + (0 x 20 = 0) = 22

126
 Converting Decimal to Binary

Convert 20110 to binary:

201 / 2 = 100 remainder 1
100 / 2 = 50 remainder 0
50 / 2 = 25 remainder 0
25 / 2 = 12 remainder 1
12 / 2 = 6 remainder 0
6 / 2 = 3 remainder 0
3 / 2 = 1 remainder 1
1 / 2 = 0 remainder 1
When the quotient is 0, take all the remainders in
reverse order for your answer: 20110 = 110010012 127
Binary to Decimal Chart

128
Hex to Binary to Decimal Chart

129
 Introduction to TCP/IP
Addresses

172.18.0.1 172.16.0.1

172.18.0.2 172.16.0.2
HDR SA DA DATA
10.13.0.0 192.168.1.0
10.13.0.1 172.17.0.1 172.17.0.2 192.168.1.1

– Unique addressing allows communication

between end stations.
– Path choice is based on destination address.
• Location is represented by an address
130
 IP Addressing
32 Bits
Dotted
Decimal Network Host

Maximum 255 255 255 255

1 8 9 16 17 24 25 32

Binary 11111111 11111111 11111111 11111111

8
4
2
1
128
64
32
16
128
64
32
16
8
4
2
1
128
64
32
16
8
4
2
1
128

8
4
2
1
64
32
16

Example
Decimal 172 16 122 204
Example 10101100 00010000 01111010 11001100
Binary 131
 IP Address Classes

8 Bits 8 Bits 8 Bits 8 Bits

•Class A: Network Host Host Host

•Class B: Network Network Host Host

•Class C: Network Network Network Host

•Class D: Multicast
•Class E: Research
132
 IP Address Classes
Bits: 1 8 9 16 17 24 25 32
0NNNNNNN Host Host Host
Class A:
Range (1-126)

Bits: 1 8 9 16 17 24 25 32
10NNNNNN Network Host Host
Class B:
Range (128-191)
1 8 9 16 17 24 25 32
Bits:
110NNNNN Network Network Host
Class C:
Range (192-223)
1 8 9 16 17 24 25 32
Bits:
1110MMMM Multicast Group Multicast Group Multicast Group
Class D:
Range (224-239)
133
 Host Addresses
172.16.2.2 10.1.1.1
10.6.24.2
E1
172.16.3.10 E0 10.250.8.11
172.16.2.1

172.16.12.12 10.180.30.118

Routing Table
172.16 . 12 . 12 Network Interface
Network Host 172.16.0.0 E0
10.0.0.0 E1
134
 Classless Inter-Domain Routing
(CIDR)
• Basically the method that ISPs (Internet Service
Providers) use to allocate an amount of
addresses to a company, a home
• Ex : 192.168.10.32/28
• The slash notation (/) means how many bits are
turned on (1s)

135
CIDR Values

136
 Determining Available Host
Addresses
Network Host

172 16 0 0
N

12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
16
15
14
13
10101100 00010000 00000000 00000000 1
00000000 00000001 2
00000000 00000011 3

...
...

...
11111111 11111101 65534
11111111 11111110 65535
11111111 11111111 65536
– 2
2N – 2 = 216 – 2 = 65534 65534
137
IP Address Classes Exercise

Address Class Network Host

10.2.1.1

128.63.2.100

201.222.5.64

192.6.141.2

130.113.64.16

256.241.201.10

138
IP Address Classes Exercise
Answers

Address Class Network Host

10.2.1.1 A 10.0.0.0 0.2.1.1

128.63.2.100 B 128.63.0.0 0.0.2.100

201.222.5.64 C 201.222.5.0 0.0.0.64

192.6.141.2 C 192.6.141.0 0.0.0.2

130.113.64.16 B 130.113.0.0 0.0.64.16

256.241.201.10 Nonexistent

139
 Subnetting

Subnetting is logically dividing the network

by extending the 1’s used in SNM
Advantage
Can divide network in smaller parts
Restrict Broadcast traffic
Security
Simplified Administration

140
 Formula
 Number of subnets – 2x-2
Where X = number of bits borrowed

 Number of Hosts – 2y-2

Where y = number of 0’s

 Block Size = Total number of Address

Block Size = 256-Mask

141
 Subnetting
 Classful IP Addressing SNM are a set of 255’s and 0’s.
 In Binary it’s contiguous 1’s and 0’s.
 SNM cannot be any value as it won’t follow the rule of
contiguous 1’s and 0’s.
 Possible subnet mask values
– 0
– 128
– 192
– 224
– 240
– 248
– 252
– 254
– 255

142
Addressing Without Subnets

172.16.0.1 172.16.0.2 172.16.0.3 172.16.255.253 172.16.255.254

…...

172.16.0.0

• Network 172.16.0.0 143

Addressing with Subnets

172.16.3.0

172.16.4.0

172.16.1.0 172.16.2.0

• Network 172.16.0.0 144

 Subnet Addressing
172.16.2.200 172.16.3.5
172.16.3.1
E1
172.16.2.2 E0 172.16.3.100
172.16.2.1

172.16.2.160 172.16.3.150

New Routing Table

172.16 . 2 . 160 Network Interface
Network Host 172.16.0.0 E0
172.16.0.0 E1
145
 Subnet Addressing
172.16.2.200 172.16.3.5
172.16.3.1
E1
172.16.2.2 E0 172.16.3.100
172.16.2.1

172.16.2.160 172.16.3.150

New Routing Table

172.16 . 2 . 160 Network Interface
Network Subnet Host 172.16.2.0 E0
172.16.3.0 E1
146
 Subnet Mask
Network Host

IP
Address
172 16 0 0
Network Host
Default
Subnet
Mask
255 255 0 0
11111111 11111111 00000000 00000000
• Also written as “/16,” where 16 represents the number of 1s
in the mask
Network Subnet Host
8-Bit
Subnet 255 255 255 0
Mask
• Also written as “/24,” where 24 represents the number of
1s in the mask 147
Decimal Equivalents of Bit
Patterns
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 = 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 = 128
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 = 192
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 = 224
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 = 240
1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 = 248
1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 = 252
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 = 254
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 = 255 148
 Subnet Mask Without Subnets
Network Host

172.16.2.160 10101100 00010000 00000010 10100000

255.255.0.0 11111111 11111111 00000000 00000000

10101100 00010000 00000000 00000000

Network 172 16 0 0
Number

• Subnets not in use—the default

149
 Subnet Mask with Subnets
Network Subnet Host

172.16.2.160 10101100 00010000 00000010 10100000

255.255.255.0 11111111 11111111 11111111 00000000

10101100 00010000 00000010 00000000

192
224
240
248
252
255
128

254
Network
Number 172 16 2 0

• Network number extended by eight bits

150
 Subnet Mask with Subnets
(cont.)
Network Subnet Host

172.16.2.160 10101100 00010000 00000010 10100000

255.255.255.192 11111111 11111111 11111111 11000000

10101100 00010000 00000010 10000000

192
224
240
248
252
255
128
192
224
240
248
252
254
255
128

254
Network
Number 172 16 2 128

• Network number extended by ten bits

151
 Subnet Mask Exercise

Address Subnet Mask Class Subnet

172.16.2.10 255.255.255.0

10.6.24.20 255.255.240.0

10.30.36.12 255.255.255.0

152
Subnet Mask Exercise Answers

Address Subnet Mask Class Subnet

172.16.2.10 255.255.255.0 B 172.16.2.0

10.6.24.20 255.255.240.0 A 10.6.16.0

10.30.36.12 255.255.255.0 A 10.30.36.0

153
Broadcast Addresses

172.16.3.0

172.16.4.0

172.16.1.0

172.16.3.255 172.16.2.0
(Directed Broadcast)

255.255.255.255
(Local Network Broadcast)
X
172.16.255.255
(All Subnets Broadcast)
154
 Addressing Summary Example
172 16 2 160

3
172.16.2.160 10101100 00010000 00000010 10100000 Host 1

255.255.255.192 11111111 11111111 11111111 11000000 Mask 2

9 8
172.16.2.128 10101100 00010000 00000010 10000000 Subnet 4

172.16.2.191 10101100 00010000 00000010 10111111 Broadcast

5
172.16.2.129 10101100 00010000 00000010 10000001 First 6

172.16.2.190 10101100 00010000 00000010 10111110 Last 7

155
 Class B Subnet Example
IP Host Address: 172.16.2.121
Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0

Network Network Subnet Host

172.16.2.121: 10101100 00010000 00000010 01111001

255.255.255.0: 11111111 11111111 11111111 00000000

Subnet: 10101100 00010000 00000010 00000000

Broadcast: 10101100 00010000 00000010 11111111

• Subnet Address = 172.16.2.0

• Host Addresses = 172.16.2.1–172.16.2.254
• Broadcast Address = 172.16.2.255
• Eight Bits of Subnetting
156
 Subnet Planning
20 Subnets
5 Hosts per Subnet
Class C Address:
192.168.5.0

192.168.5.16
Other
Subnets

192.168.5.32 192.168.5.48

157
 Class C Subnet Planning
Example
IP Host Address: 192.168.5.121
Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.248
Network Network Network Subnet Host

192.168.5.121: 11000000 10101000 00000101 01111001

255.255.255.248: 11111111 11111111 11111111 11111000

Subnet: 11000000 10101000 00000101 01111000

Broadcast: 11000000 10101000 00000101 01111111

• Subnet Address = 192.168.5.120

• Host Addresses = 192.168.5.121–192.168.5.126
• Broadcast Address = 192.168.5.127
• Five Bits of Subnetting
158
 Exercise
• 192.168.10.0
• /27

? – SNM
? – Block Size
?- Subnets

159
 Exercise
• /27

? – SNM – 224
? – Block Size = 256-224 = 32
?- Subnets

Subnets 10.0 10.32 10.64

FHID 10.1 10.33

LHID 10.30 10.62

Broadcast 10.31 10.63

160
 Exercise
• 192.168.10.0
• /30

? – SNM
? – Block Size
?- Subnets

161
 Exercise
• /30

? – SNM – 252
? – Block Size = 256-252 = 4
?- Subnets

Subnets 10.0 10.4 10.8

FHID 10.1 10.5

LHID 10.2 10.6

Broadcast 10.3 10.7

162
 Exercise
Mask Subnets Host
/26 ? ? ?
/27 ? ? ?
/28 ? ? ?
/29 ? ? ?
/30 ? ? ?
163
 Exercise
Mask Subnets Host
/26 192 4 62
/27 224 8 30
/28 240 16 14
/29 248 32 6
/30 252 64 2
164
 Exam Question
• Find Subnet and Broadcast address
– 192.168.0.100/27

165
 Exercise
192.168.10.54 /29
Mask ?
Subnet ?
Broadcast ?

166
 Exercise
192.168.10.130 /28
Mask ?
Subnet ?
Broadcast ?

167
 Exercise
192.168.10.193 /30
Mask ?
Subnet ?
Broadcast ?

168
 Exercise
192.168.1.100 /26
Mask ?
Subnet ?
Broadcast ?

169
 Exercise
192.168.20.158 /27
Mask ?
Subnet ?
Broadcast ?

170
 Class B
172.16.0.0 /19
Subnets ?
Hosts ?
Block Size ?

171
 Class B
172.16.0.0 /19
Subnets 23 -2 = 6
Hosts 213 -2 = 8190
Block Size 256-224 = 32

Subnets 0.0 32.0 64.0 96.0

FHID 0.1 32.1 64.1 96.1

LHID 31.254 63.254 95.254 127.254

Broadcast 31.255 63.255 95.255 127.255

172
 Class B
172.16.0.0 /27
Subnets ?
Hosts ?
Block Size ?

173
 Class B
172.16.0.0 /27
Subnets 211 -2 = 2046
Hosts 25 -2 = 30
Block Size 256-224 = 32

Subnets 0.0 0.32 0.64 0.96

FHID 0.1 0.33 0.65 0.97

LHID 0.30 0.62 0.94 0.126

Broadcast 0.31 0.63 0.95 0.127

174
 Class B
172.16.0.0 /23
Subnets ?
Hosts ?
Block Size ?

175
 Class B
172.16.0.0 /23
Subnets 27 -2 = 126
Hosts 29 -2 = 510
Block Size 256-254 = 2

Subnets 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0

FHID 0.1 2.1 4.1 6.1

LHID 1.254 3.254 5.254 7.254

Broadcast 1.255 3.255 5.255 7.255

176
 Class B
172.16.0.0 /24
Subnets ?
Hosts ?
Block Size ?

177
 Class B
172.16.0.0 /24
Subnets 28 -2 = 254
Hosts 28 -2 = 254
Block Size 256-255 = 1

Subnets 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0

FHID 0.1 1.1 2.1 3.1

LHID 0.254 1.254 2.254 3.254

Broadcast 0.255 1.255 2.255 3.255

178
 Class B
172.16.0.0 /25
Subnets ?
Hosts ?
Block Size ?

179
 Class B
172.16.0.0 /25
Subnets 29 -2 = 510
Hosts 27 -2 = 126
Block Size 256-128 = 128

Subnets 0.0 0.128 1.0 1.128 2.0 2.128

FHID 0.1 0.129 1.1 1.129 2.1 2.129

LHID 0.126 0.254 1.126 1.254 2.126 2.254

Broadcast 0.127 0.255 1.127 1.255 2.127 2.255

180
 Find out Subnet and Broadcast
Address
• 172.16.85.30/29

182
 Find out Subnet and Broadcast
Address
• 172.30.101.62/23

183
 Find out Subnet and Broadcast
Address
• 172.20.210.80/24

184
 Exercise
• Find out the mask which gives 100
subnets for class B

185
 Exercise
• Find out the Mask which gives 100 hosts
for Class B

186
 Class A
10.0.0.0 /10
Subnets ?
Hosts ?
Block Size ?

187
 Class A
10.0.0.0 /10
Subnets 22 -2 = 2
Hosts 222 -2 = 4194302
Block Size 256-192 = 64

Subnets 10.0 10.64 10.128 10.192

FHID 10.0.0.1 10.64.0.1 10.128.0.1 10.192.0.1

LHID 10.63.255.254 10.127.255.254 10.191.255.254 10.254.255.254

Broadcast 10.63.255.255 10.127.255.255 10.191.255.255 10.254.255.255

188
 Class A
10.0.0.0 /18
Subnets ?
Hosts ?
Block Size ?

189
 Class A
10.0.0.0 /18
Subnets 210 -2 = 1022
Hosts 214 -2 = 16382
Block Size 256-192 = 64

Subnets 10.0.0.0 10.0.64.0 10.0.128.0 10.0.192.0

FHID 10.0.0.1 10.0.64.1 10.0.128.1 10.0.192.1

LHID 10.0.63.254 10.0.127.254 10.0.191.254 10.0.254.254

Broadcast 10.0.63.255 10.0.127.255 10.0.191.255 10.0.254.255

190
 Broadcast Addresses Exercise

Address Subnet Mask Class Subnet Broadcast

201.222.10.60 255.255.255.248

15.16.193.6 255.255.248.0

128.16.32.13 255.255.255.252

153.50.6.27 255.255.255.128

191
 Broadcast Addresses Exercise
Answers

Address Subnet Mask Class Subnet Broadcast

201.222.10.60 255.255.255.248 C 201.222.10.56 201.222.10.63

15.16.193.6 255.255.248.0 A 15.16.192.0 15.16.199.255

128.16.32.13 255.255.255.252 B 128.16.32.12 128.16.32.15

153.50.6.27 255.255.255.128 B 153.50.6.0 153.50.6.127

192
 VLSM
• VLSM is a method of designating a different subnet
mask for the same network number on different subnets

• Can use a long mask on networks with few hosts and a

shorter mask on subnets with many hosts

• With VLSMs we can have different subnet masks for

different subnets.

193
 Variable Length Subnetting
 VLSM allows us to use one class C address to
design a networking scheme to meet the
following requirements:
 Bangalore 60 Hosts
 Mumbai 28 Hosts
 Sydney 12 Hosts
 Singapore 12 Hosts
 WAN 1 2 Hosts
 WAN 2 2 Hosts
 WAN 3 2 Hosts
194
 Networking Requirements
Bangalore 60

WAN 2
WAN 1

WAN 3

Sydney 60 Singapore 60
Mumbai 60
In the example above, a /26 was used to provide the 60 addresses
for Bangalore and the other LANs. There are no addresses left for
WAN links 195
 Networking Scheme
Mumbai 192.168.10.64/27
28

WAN 192.168.10.129 and 130 WAN 192.198.10.133 and 134

192.168.10.128/30 192.168.10.132/30
2 2
2 WAN 192.198.10.137 and 138

192.168.10.136/30

60 12 12

Bangalore Sydney 192.168.10.96/28

192.168.10.0/26
Singapore 192.168.10.112/28
196
 VLSM Exercise
2
12
40 2

25

192.168.1.0

197
 VLSM Exercise
192.168.1.8/30 192.168.1.16/28
192.168.1.64/26
12
40 2 2

2
192.168.1.12/30
192.168.1.4/30

25

192.168.1.32/27

192.168.1.0

198
 VLSM Exercise

2
8 5

2
2

2
35
15

192.168.1.0

199
 Summarization
• Summarization, also called route aggregation, allows
routing protocols to advertise many networks as one
address.
• The purpose of this is to reduce the size of routing
tables on routers to save memory
• Route summarization (also called route aggregation or
supernetting) can reduce the number of routes that a
router must maintain
• Route summarization is possible only when a proper
addressing plan is in place
• Route summarization is most effective within a
subnetted environment when the network addresses are
in contiguous blocks

200
Summarization

201
 Supernetting

Network Network Network Subnet

16 8 4 2 1
172.16.12.0 11000000 10101000 00001100 00000000
172.16.13.0 11000000 10101000 00001101 00000000
172.16.14.0 11000000 10101000 00001110 00000000
172.16.15.0 11000000 10101000 00001111 00000000

255.255.255.0 11111111 11111111 11111111 00000000

202
 Supernetting

Network Network Network Subnet

16 8 4 2 1
172.16.12.0 11000000 10101000 00001100 00000000
172.16.13.0 11000000 10101000 00001101 00000000
172.16.14.0 11000000 10101000 00001110 00000000
172.16.15.0 11000000 10101000 00001111 00000000

255.255.252.0 11111111 11111111 11111100 00000000

172.16.12.0/24
172.16.13.0/24 172.16.12.0/22
172.16.14.0/24
172.16.15.0/24 203
 Supernetting Question
17 17
2.1 2.1
. 4.1 .4.
128
17 28/ /25
2. 25
1 .5
. 0/
4 2
17
2.
1.
6.
0/
24 17
2.
1.
7.
0/
24

 What is the most efficient summarization that TK1 can use to advertise its
networks to TK2?

A. 172.1.4.0/24172.1.5.0/24172.1.6.0/24172.1.7.0/24
B. 172.1.0.0/22
C. 172.1.4.0/25172.1.4.128/25172.1.5.0/24172.1.6.0/24172.1.7.0/24
D. 172.1.0.0/21
E. 172.1.4.0/22
204