SQL

Presented by : Prashant Soni ‘Technical Trainer, UCER‘

 Objectives
After completing this session, you should be able to
do the following:
• Perform the various types of SQL operations:
• DDL (Data Definition Language) Queries
• DQL (Data Query Language) Queries
• DML (Data Manipulation Language) Queries
• DCL (Data Control Language) Queries
• Able to answer the interview’s important questions based on SQL.
 IMPORTANT
Q1. What is the difference between Front and Back End? (Asked by Infosys, TCS, Wipro, etc. in 2018,19)
Q2. What technology did you used as front End and Backend in Your project? (Asked by Infosys 2017,18,19)

Important Part of Any Website

Front End
• It is the visible part of the web site
• Human or digital users interact directly with various aspects of the front
end of a website.

Back End
• It is the knowledge base behind the front end
• It comprises three components: server, application, and database.
 IMPORTANT
Q1.What is the difference between SQL and MYSQL? (Asked by INFOSYS, TCS in 2017,18,19)
Q2.What is the full form of PHP? (Asked by INFOSYS in 2019)
WHAT IS THE ROLE OF “SQL” IN ANY PROJECT
WHAT IS THE ROLE OF “SQL” IN ANY PROJECT
 IMPORTANT
Q1.Full form of SQL? (Asked by INFOSYS, TCS in 2017,18,19)
Q2.Why did we say that SQL is a universal language? (Asked by INFOSYS in 2019)

Introduction
• SQL stands for Structured Query Language
• SQL was initially developed at IBM by Donald D. Chamberlin and Raymond F in 1970
• SQL is used to communicate with a database
• SQL is a non-procedural language
• IN SQL we need to only describe what we ‘want to be done’.
• Also, they are using different dialects, such as −
• MS SQL Server using T-SQL,
• Oracle using PL/SQL,
• MS Access version of SQL is called JET SQL (native format) etc.
 IMPORTANT
Q1.What is the difference between DDL and DML ? (Asked by INFOSYS, TCS in 2017,18,19)
Q2.What is schema? (Asked by MIND in 2019)

SQL Environment
• Schema
• The structure that contains descriptions of objects created by a user (base tables, views, constraints)

• Data Definition Language (DDL)

• Commands that define a database, including creating, altering, and dropping tables and establishing
constraints

• Data Query Language (DQL)

• A set of schemas that constitute the description of a database

• Data Manipulation Language (DML)

• Commands that maintain and query a database

• Data Control Language (DCL)

• Commands that control a database, including administering privileges and committing data
 SQL COMMANDS

DDL DML DCL

DQL (Data Manipulation
(Data Definition (Data Control Language)
(Data Query Language) Language)
Language)

CREATE SELECT INSERT GRANT

ALTER UPDATE REVOKE

TRUNCATE DELETE

DROP MERGE

RENAME

COMMENT
 SQL COMMANDS

DDL DML DCL

DQL (Data Manipulation
(Data Definition (Data Control Language)
(Data Query Language) Language)
Language)

CREATE SELECT INSERT GRANT

ALTER UPDATE REVOKE

DROP DELETE

TRUNCATE MERGE

RENAME
DDL COMMANDS…
• The Create Command to create table

SYNTAX
Create table TableName(clo1 datatype(size), clo2 datatype(size)[CONSTRAINT],……. clon
datatype(size));

EXAMPLE

Create table Demo( FirstName varchar2(20),LastName varchar2(20),salary number(5));

DDL COMMANDS…

• The ALTER Command is used to:-

• Adding New Columns
• Dropping a Column from the Table
• Modifying Existing Table
• Adding Constraints in Table
DDL COMMANDS…
• The ALTER Command to add new column in table

SYNTAX

ALTER table TableName add ColumnName datatype(size);

EXAMPLE

ALTER table Demo add dept number(2);

DDL COMMANDS…
• The ALTER Command to Remove a column from table

SYNTAX

Alter Table TableName drop Column ColumnName;

EXAMPLE

Alter Table Demo drop column dept;

DDL COMMANDS…
• The ALTER Command to modify existing column in table

SYNTAX

Alter table TableName modify ColumnName newdatatype(newsize);

EXAMPLE

alter table Demo modify dept number(5);

DDL COMMANDS…
• The ALTER Command to add constraint for particular column

SYNTAX

Alter table TableName add CONSTRAINT constraintname constrainttype (ColumnName);

EXAMPLE

Alter table Demo add CONSTRAINT consprim PRIMARY KEY (emp_id);

DDL COMMANDS…
•Drop command use to drop the table structure from database .

SYNTAX

Drop table TableName;

EXAMPLE

Drop table Demo;

 DDL COMMANDS…
•Rename command is use to rename the table in the database..

SYNTAX

Alter Table table_name Rename to new_Table_Name

EXAMPLE

Alter table Demo Rename to Demo_emp;

DDL COMMANDS…
•Rename command is use to rename the column in the Table.

SYNTAX

Alter Table table_name Rename column old_column_name to new_column_Name

EXAMPLE

Alter table Demo Rename column dept to dept_no;

 SQL COMMANDS

DDL DML DCL

DQL (Data Manipulation
(Data Definition (Data Control Language)
(Data Query Language) Language)
Language)

CREATE SELECT INSERT GRANT

ALTER UPDATE REVOKE

TRUNCATE DELETE

DROP MERGE

RENAME

COMMENT
 Writing Basic
SQL SELECT Statements
Capabilities of SQL SELECT Statements
Projection Selection

Table 1 Table 1

Join

Table 1 Table 2
Basic SELECT Statement
SELECT *|{[DISTINCT] column|expression [alias],...}
FROM table;

• SELECT identifies what columns

• FROM identifies which table
Selecting All Columns
SELECT *
FROM departments;
Selecting Specific Columns
SELECT department_id, location_id
FROM departments;
Writing SQL Statements
• SQL statements are not case sensitive.
• SQL statements can be on one or more lines.
• Keywords cannot be abbreviated or split
across lines.
• Clauses are usually placed on separate lines.
• Indents are used to enhance readability.
Column Heading Defaults
• iSQL*Plus:
• Default heading justification: Center
• Default heading display: Uppercase
Arithmetic Expressions
Create expressions with number and date data by using
arithmetic operators.

Operator Description

+ Add

- Subtract

* Multiply

/ Divide
Using Arithmetic Operators
SELECT last_name, salary, salary + 300
FROM employees;

…
Operator Precedence
_

* / +

• Multiplication and division take priority over addition and

subtraction.
• Operators of the same priority are evaluated from left to
right.
• Parentheses are used to force prioritized evaluation and to
clarify statements.
Operator Precedence
SELECT last_name, salary, 12*salary+100
FROM employees;

…
Using Parentheses
SELECT last_name, salary, 12*(salary+100)
FROM employees;

…
Defining a Null Value
• A null is a value that is unavailable, unassigned, unknown, or
inapplicable.
• A null is not the same as zero or a blank space.
SELECT last_name, job_id, salary, commission_pct
FROM employees;

…
Null Values
in Arithmetic Expressions
Arithmetic expressions containing a null value
evaluate to null.
SELECT last_name, 12*salary*commission_pct
FROM employees;

…
Defining a Column Alias
A column alias:
• Renames a column heading
• Is useful with calculations
• Immediately follows the column name - there can also be the
optional AS keyword between the column name and alias
• Requires double quotation marks if it contains spaces or
special characters or is case sensitive
Using Column Aliases
SELECT last_name AS name, commission_pct comm
FROM employees;

SELECT last_name "Name", salary*12 "Annual Salary"

FROM employees;

…
Concatenation Operator
A concatenation operator:
• Concatenates columns or character strings to other columns
• Is represented by two vertical bars (||)
• Creates a resultant column that is a character expression
Using the Concatenation Operator
SELECT last_name||job_id AS "Employees"
FROM employees;

…
Literal Character Strings
• A literal is a character, a number, or a date included in the
SELECT list.
• Date and character literal values must be enclosed within
single quotation marks.
• Each character string is output once for each
row returned.
Using Literal Character Strings

SELECT last_name ||' is a '||job_id

AS "Employee Details"
FROM employees;

…
Duplicate Rows
The default display of queries is all rows, including
duplicate rows.
SELECT department_id
FROM employees;

…
Eliminating Duplicate Rows
Eliminate duplicate rows by using the DISTINCT
keyword in the SELECT clause.
SELECT DISTINCT department_id
FROM employees;
Limiting Rows Using a Selection
EMPLOYEES

“retrieve all
employees
in department 90”
Limiting the Rows Selected
• Restrict the rows returned by using the WHERE clause.

SELECT *|{[DISTINCT] column|expression [alias],...}

FROM table
[WHERE condition(s)];

• The WHERE clause follows the FROM clause.

Using the WHERE Clause
SELECT employee_id, last_name, job_id, department_id
FROM employees
WHERE department_id = 90 ;
Comparison Conditions
Operator Meaning

= Equal to

> Greater than

>= Greater than or equal to

< Less than

<= Less than or equal to

<> Not equal to

Using Comparison Conditions

SELECT last_name, salary

FROM employees
WHERE salary <= 3000;
Other Comparison Conditions
Operator Meaning

BETWEEN Between two values (inclusive),

...AND...

IN(set) Match any of a list of values

LIKE Match a character pattern

IS NULL Is a null value

Using the BETWEEN Condition
Use the BETWEEN condition to display rows based on a range
of values.
SELECT last_name, salary
FROM employees
WHERE salary BETWEEN 2500 AND 3500;

Lower limit Upper limit

Using the IN Condition
Use the IN membership condition to test for values in
a list.
SELECT employee_id, last_name, salary, manager_id
FROM employees
WHERE manager_id IN (100, 101, 201);
Using the LIKE Condition
• Use the LIKE condition to perform wildcard searches of
valid search string values.
• Search conditions can contain either literal characters or
numbers:
• % denotes zero or many characters.
• _ denotes one character.

SELECT first_name
FROM employees
WHERE first_name LIKE 'S%';
Using the LIKE Condition
• You can combine pattern-matching characters.
SELECT last_name
FROM employees
WHERE last_name LIKE '_o%';

• You can use the ESCAPE identifier to search for the actual % and _
symbols.
Using the NULL Conditions
Test for nulls with the IS NULL operator.

SELECT last_name, manager_id

FROM employees
WHERE manager_id IS NULL;
Logical Conditions
Operator Meaning

AND Returns TRUE if both component

conditions are true
OR Returns TRUE if either component
condition is true

NOT Returns TRUE if the following

condition is false
Using the AND Operator
AND requires both conditions to be true.
SELECT employee_id, last_name, job_id, salary
FROM employees
WHERE salary >=10000
AND job_id LIKE '%MAN%';
Using the OR Operator
OR requires either condition to be true.

SELECT employee_id, last_name, job_id, salary

FROM employees
WHERE salary >= 10000
OR job_id LIKE '%MAN%';
Using the NOT Operator
SELECT last_name, job_id
FROM employees
WHERE job_id
NOT IN ('IT_PROG', 'ST_CLERK', 'SA_REP');
ORDER BY Clause
• Sort rows with the ORDER BY clause
• ASC: ascending order, default
• DESC: descending order
• The ORDER BY clause comes last in the SELECT
statement.
SELECT last_name, job_id, department_id, hire_date
FROM employees
ORDER BY hire_date ;

…
Sorting by Column Alias
SELECT employee_id, last_name, salary*12 annsal
FROM employees
ORDER BY annsal;

…
 SQL COMMANDS

DDL DML DCL

DQL (Data Manipulation
(Data Definition (Data Control Language)
(Data Query Language) Language)
Language)

CREATE SELECT INSERT GRANT

ALTER UPDATE REVOKE

TRUNCATE DELETE

DROP MERGE

RENAME

COMMENT
Data Manipulation Language
• A DML statement is executed when you:
• Add new rows to a table
• Modify existing rows in a table
• Remove existing rows from a table
• A transaction consists of a collection of DML statements
that form a logical unit of work.
The INSERT Statement Syntax
• Add new rows to a table by using the INSERT statement.

INSERT INTO table [(column [, column...])]

VALUES (value [, value...]);

• Only one row is inserted at a time with this syntax.

Inserting New Rows
• Insert a new row containing values for each column.
• List values in the default order of the columns in the table.
• Optionally, list the columns in the INSERT clause.

INSERT INTO departments(department_id, department_name,

manager_id, location_id)
VALUES (70, %100, 1700);
1 row created.
• Enclose character and date values within single quotation
marks.
Inserting Rows with Null Values
• Implicit method: Omit the column from the
column list.

INSERT INTO departments (department_id,

department_name )
VALUES (30, 'Purchasing');
1 row created.

• Explicit method: Specify the NULL keyword in the

VALUES clause.
INSERT INTO departments
VALUES (100, 'Finance', NULL, NULL);
1 row created.
The UPDATE Statement Syntax
• Modify existing rows with the UPDATE statement.
UPDATE table
SET column = value [, column = value, ...]
[WHERE condition];

• Update more than one row at a time, if required.

Updating Rows in a Table
• Specific row or rows are modified if you specify the WHERE
clause.
UPDATE employees
SET department_id = 70
WHERE employee_id = 113;
1 row updated.

• All rows in the table are modified if you omit the WHERE clause.

UPDATE copy_emp
SET department_id = 110;
22 rows updated.
Removing a Row from a Table
DEPARTMENTS

Delete a row from the DEPARTMENTS table.

The DELETE Statement
You can remove existing rows from a table by using
the DELETE statement.

DELETE [FROM] table

[WHERE condition];
Deleting Rows from a Table
• Specific rows are deleted if you specify the WHERE clause.

DELETE FROM departments

WHERE department_name = 'Finance';
1 row deleted.

• All rows in the table are deleted if you omit the WHERE
clause.

DELETE FROM copy_emp;

22 rows deleted.
The MERGE Statement
• Provides the ability to conditionally update or insert data
into a database table
• Performs an UPDATE if the row exists, and an INSERT if it
is a new row:
• Avoids separate updates
• Increases performance and ease of use
• Is useful in data warehousing applications
The MERGE Statement Syntax
You can conditionally insert or update rows in a
table by using the MERGE statement.

MERGE INTO table_name table_alias

USING (table|view|sub_query) alias
ON (join condition)
WHEN MATCHED THEN
UPDATE SET
col1 = col_val1,
col2 = col2_val
WHEN NOT MATCHED THEN
INSERT (column_list)
VALUES (column_values);
Merging Rows
Insert or update rows in the COPY_EMP table to match
the EMPLOYEES table.
MERGE INTO copy_emp c
USING employees e
ON (c.employee_id = e.employee_id)
WHEN MATCHED THEN
UPDATE SET
c.first_name = e.first_name,
c.last_name = e.last_name,
...
c.department_id = e.department_id
WHEN NOT MATCHED THEN
INSERT VALUES(e.employee_id, e.first_name, e.last_name,
e.email, e.phone_number, e.hire_date, e.job_id,
e.salary, e.commission_pct, e.manager_id,
e.department_id);
 SQL COMMANDS

DDL DML DCL

DQL (Data Manipulation
(Data Definition (Data Control Language)
(Data Query Language) Language)
Language)

CREATE SELECT INSERT GRANT

ALTER UPDATE REVOKE

TRUNCATE DELETE

DROP MERGE

RENAME

COMMENT
Controlling User Access
Database
administrator

Username and password

Privileges

Users
Privileges
• Database security:
• System security
• Data security
• System privileges: Gaining access to the database
• Object privileges: Manipulating the content of the
database objects
• Schemas: Collections of objects, such as tables, views,
and sequences
Creating Users
The DBA creates users by using the CREATE USER
statement.

CREATE USER user

IDENTIFIED BY password;

CREATE USER scott

IDENTIFIED BY tiger;
User created.
Granting System Privileges
The DBA can grant a user specific system privileges.

GRANT create session, create table,

create sequence, create view
TO scott;
Grant succeeded.
What is a Role?
Users

Manager

Privileges

Allocating privileges Allocating privileges

without a role with a role
Creating and Granting Privileges to a Role
• Create a role

CREATE ROLE manager;

Role created.
• Grant privileges to a role

GRANT create table, create view

TO manager;
Grant succeeded.
• Grant a role to users
GRANT manager TO DEHAAN, KOCHHAR;
Grant succeeded.
Granting Object Privileges
• Grant query privileges on the EMPLOYEES table.
GRANT select
ON employees
TO sue, rich;
Grant succeeded.

• Grant privileges to update specific columns to users and

roles.
GRANT update (department_name, location_id)
ON departments
TO scott, manager;
Grant succeeded.
Using the WITH GRANT OPTION and
PUBLIC
•
Keywords
Give a user authority to pass along privileges.

GRANT select, insert

ON departments
TO scott
WITH GRANT OPTION;
Grant succeeded.
• Allow all users on the system to query data from Alice’s
DEPARTMENTS table.

GRANT select
ON alice.departments
TO PUBLIC;
Grant succeeded.
How to Revoke Object Privileges
• You use the REVOKE statement to revoke privileges
granted to other users.
• Privileges granted to others through the WITH GRANT
OPTION clause are also revoked.

REVOKE {privilege [, privilege...]|ALL}

ON object
FROM {user[, user...]|role|PUBLIC}
[CASCADE CONSTRAINTS];
Revoking Object Privileges
As user Alice, revoke the SELECT and INSERT privileges
given to user Scott on the DEPARTMENTS table.

REVOKE select, insert

ON departments
FROM scott;
Revoke succeeded.
THANK YOU!