Elementary Linear Algebra

Shikha Pandey

Chapter 5:
Linear Transformations
Linear Transformation
 Definition
 If T : V  W is a function from a vector space V into a

vector space W, then T is called a linear transformation

from V to W if for all vectors u and v in V and all scalars c
 T (u + v) = T (u) + T (v)

 T (cu) = cT (u)

In the special case where V = W, the linear transformation T

: V  V is called a linear operator on V.

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Linear Transformation (Trivial)
 Example (Zero Transformation)
 The mapping T : V  W such that T(v) = 0 for every v in V

is a linear transformation called the zero transformation.

 Example (Identity Operator)

 The mapping I : V  I defined by I (v) = v is called the

identity operator on V.

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Examples: Orthogonal Projections
 Suppose that W is a finite-dimensional subspace of an inner product
space V ; then the orthogonal projection of V onto W is the
transformation defined by
T (v) = projWv
 If S = {w1, w2, …, wr} is any orthogonal basis for W, then T (v) is
given by the formula
T (v) = projWv = v, w1 w1 + v, w2 w2 + ··· + v, wr wr

 This projection a linear transformation:

 T(u + v) = T(u) + T(v)

 T(cu) = cT(u)

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Example: A Linear Transformation from
a Space V to Rn
 Let S = {w1, w2, …, wn} be a basis for an n-dimensional vector space
V, and let
(v)s = (k1,, k2,, …, kn)
be the coordinate vector relative to S of a vector v in V; thus v =
k1w1 + k2w2 + …+ kn wn

 Define T : V  Rn to be the function that maps v into its coordinate

vector relative to S; that is,
T (v) = (v)s = (k1,, k2,, …, kn)
 Then the function T is a linear transformation:
 Let u = c1w1 + c2w2 + …+ cn wn and v = d1w1 + d2w2 + …+ dn wn
 Check if (u + v)s = (u)s + (v)s and (ku)s = k(u)s

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Example:A Linear Transformation from
Pn to Pn+1
 Let p = p(x) = c0 + c1x + ··· + cnx n be a polynomial in Pn ,
and define the function T : Pn  Pn+1 by
T (p) = T (p(x)) = xp(x) = c0x + c1x2 + ··· + cnx n+1

 The function T is a linear transformation:

 For any scalar k and any polynomials p1 and p2 in Pn we have
 T (p1 + p2) = T (p1(x) + p2 (x)) = x (p1(x) + p2 (x)) = x p1(x) + x p2 (x)
= T (p1) + T (p2)
 T (k p) = T (k p(x)) = x (k p(x)) = k (x p(x))= k T(p)

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Example: A Linear Transformation
Using an Inner Product
 Let V be an inner product space and let v0 be any fixed
vector in V.
Let T : V  R be the transformation that maps a vector v into
its inner product with v0; that is,
T (v) = v, v0

 From the properties of an inner product

 T (u + v) = u + v, v0 = u, v0 + v, v0
 T (k u) = k u, v0 = k u, v0 = kT (u)
 Thus, T is a linear transformation.

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Properties of Linear Transformation
 If T : V  W is a linear transformation, then for any vectors v1 and
v2 in V and any scalars c1 and c2, we have
T (c1v1 + c2v2) = T (c1v1) + T (c2v2) = c1T (v1) + c2T (v2)
 More generally, if v1 , v2 , …, vn are vectors in V and c1 , c2 , …, cn are
scalars, then
T (c1v1 + c2v2 +…+ cnvn ) = c1T (v1) + c2T (v2) +…+ cnT (vn)

 The above equation is sometimes described by saying that linear

transformations preserve linear combinations.

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Theorem
 Theorem 8.1
 If T : V  W is a linear transformation, then

 T(0) = 0

 T(-v) = -T(v) for all v in V

 T(v – w) = T(v) – T(w) for all v and w in V

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Finding Linear Transformations from
Images of Basis
 If T : V  W is a linear transformation, and if {v1 , v2 , …, vn } is any
basis for V, then the image T (v) of any vector v in V can be calculated
from the images
T (v1), T (v2), …, T (vn)
of the basis vectors.

 This can be done by first expressing v as a linear combination of the

basis vectors, say
v = c1 v1+ c2 v2+ …+ cn vn
and then the transformation becomes
T (v) = c1 T (v1) + c2 T (v2) + … + cn T (vn)

 A linear transformation is completely determined by its images of any

basis vectors.

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 Example
 Consider the basis S = {v1 , v2 , v3} for R3 , where
v1 = (1,1,1), v2 = (1,1,0), and v3 = (1,0,0).
Let T: R3  R2 be the linear transformation such that
T (v1) = (1,0), T (v2) = (2,-1), T (v3) = (4,3).
Find a formula for T (x1, x2, x3); then use this formula to compute T
(2, -3, 5).

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Composition of T2 with T1
 Definition
 If T1 : U  V and T2 : V  W are linear transformations, the
composition of T2 with T1, denoted by T2  T1 (read “T2 circle
T1 ”), is the function defined by the formula
(T2  T1 )(u) = T2 (T1 (u))
where u is a vector in U.

 Theorem 8.1.2
 If T1 : U  V and T2 : V  W are linear transformations, then
(T2  T1 ) : U  W is also a linear transformation.

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Remark
 The compositions can be defined for more than two linear
transformations.
 For example, if T1 : U  V and T2 : V  W ,and T3 : W  Y are
linear transformations, then the composition T3  T2  T1 is
defined by (T3  T2  T1 )(u) = T3 (T2 (T1 (u)))

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Kernel and Range
 Recall:
 If A is an mn matrix, then the nullspace of A consists of all

vector x in Rn such that Ax = 0.

 The column space of A consists of all vectors b in Rm for

which there is at least one vector x in Rn such that Ax = b.

 The nullspace of A consists of all vectors in Rn that

multiplication by A maps into 0. (in terms of matrix

transformation)
 The column space of A consists of all vectors in Rm that are

images of at least one vector in Rn under multiplication by

A. (in terms of matrix transformation)

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Kernel and Range
 Definition
 If T : V  W is a linear transformation, then the set of
vectors in V that T maps into 0 is called the kernel of T; it
is denoted by ker(T).

 The set of all vectors in W that are images under T of at

least one vector in V is called the range of T; it is denoted
by R(T).

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Examples
 If TA : Rn  Rm is multiplication by the mn matrix A, then the
kernel of TA is the nullspace of A and the range of TA is the column
space of A.

 Let T : V  W be the zero transformation. Since T maps every

vector in V into 0, it follows that ker(T) = V. Moreover, since 0 is
the only image under T of vectors in V, we have R(T) = {0}.

 Let I : V  V be the identity operator. Since I (v) = v for all vectors

in V, every vector in V is the image of some vector; thus, R(I) = V.
Since the only vector that I maps into 0 is 0, it follows ker(I) = {0}.

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Example
 Let T : R3  R3 be the orthogonal projection on the xy-plane. The
kernel of T is the set of points that T maps into 0 = (0,0,0); these are
the points on the z-axis.
 Since T maps every points in R3 into the xy-plane, the range of T must
be some subset of this plane.
But every point (x0 ,y0 ,0) in the xy-plane is the image under T of some
point. Thus R(T) is the entire xy-plane.

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Example
 Let T : R2  R2 be the linear operator that rotates each vector
in the xy-plane through the angle .

 Since every vector in the xy-plane can be obtained by rotating

through some vector through angle , we have R(T) = R2.
 The only vector that rotates into 0 is 0, so ker(T) = {0}.

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Properties of Kernel and Range
 Theorem 8.2.1
 If T : V  W is linear transformation, then:
 The kernel of T is a subspace of V.

 The range of T is a subspace of W.

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Properties of Kernel and Range
 Definition
 If T : V  W is a linear transformation, then the dimension of

the range of T is called the rank of T and is denoted by rank(T).

 The dimension of the kernel is called the nullity of T and is

denoted by nullity(T).

 Theorem 8.2.2
 If A is an mn matrix and T : Rn  Rm is multiplication by A,
A
then:
 nullity (T ) = nullity (A)
A
 rank (TA) = rank (A)

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Example
1 0 4 28 37 13
0 1 2 12 16 5 

0 0 0 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 0 0 0

 x1   4  28 37   13

x   2 12  16   5 
 Let TA : R6  R4 be multiplication by  2
 x3 
 
1 
   
0 0

 0 

   r   s t  u 
 x4  0  1 0  0 
 1 2 0 4 5  3  x5 
 
0 
 
0 1
   
 0 
 
 3 7 2 0 1 4   x6   0   0   0   1 

A 
 2 5 2 4 6 1
 
 4  9 2  4  4 7 

Find the rank and nullity of TA

 In Example 1 of Section 5.6 we showed that rank (A) = 2 and nullity

(A) = 4. (use reduced row-echelon form, etc.)
 Thus, from Theorem 8.2.2, rank (TA) = 2 and nullity (TA) = 4.

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Example
 Let T : R3  R3 be the orthogonal projection on the xy-
plane.
 From Example 4, the kernel of T is the z-axis, which is
one-dimensional; and the range of T is the xy-plane,
which is two-dimensional.
 Thus, nullity (T) = 1 and rank (T) = 2.

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Dimension Theorem for Linear
Transformations
 Theorem 8.2.3
 If T : V  W is a linear transformation from an n-

dimensional vector space V to a vector space W, then

rank(T) + nullity(T) = n

 Remark
 In words, this theorem states that for linear transformations

the rank plus the nullity is equal to the dimension of the

domain.

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One-to-One Linear Transformation
 A linear transformation T : V  W is said to be one-
to-one if T maps distinct vectors in V into distinct
vectors in W.

 Examples
 If A is an nn matrix and TA : Rn  Rn is multiplication
by A, then TA is one-to-one if and only if A is an
invertible matrix (Theorem 4.3.1).

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Example
 Let T : R2  R2 be the linear operator that rotates
each vector in the xy-plane through an angle . We
showed that ker(T) = {0} and R(T) = R2.

 Thus, rank(T) + nullity(T) = 2 + 0 = 2.

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Theorem 8.3.1 (Equivalent
Statements)
 If T : V  W is a linear transformation, then the
following are equivalent.

 T is one-to-one

 The kernel of T contains only zero vector; that is,

ker(T) = {0}

 Nullity(T) = 0

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 Theorem 8.3.2
 If V is a finite-dimensional vector space and T : V  V is
a linear operator, then the following are equivalent.
 T is one-to-one

 ker(T) = {0}

 Nullity(T) = 0

 The range of T is V; that is, R(T) = V

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Example
 Let TA : R4  R4 be multiplication by
1 3  2 4
2 6  4 8 
A
3 9 1 5
 
1 1 4 8
Determine whether TA is one to one.

 Solution:
 det(A) = 0, since the first two rows of A are proportional

 A is not invertible
 TA is not one-to-one.

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Inverse Linear Transformations
 If T : V  W is a linear transformation, then the range of T denoted
by R (T), is the subspace of W consisting of all images under T of
vectors in V.

 If T is one-to-one, then each vector w in R(T) is the image of a

unique vector v in V.

 This uniqueness allows us to define a new function, call the inverse

of T, denoted by T –1, which maps w back into v.

 The mapping T –1 : R (T)  V is a linear transformation.

Moreover,
T –1(T (v)) = T –1(w) = v
T –1(T (w)) = T –1(v) = w

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Inverse Linear Transformations
 If T : V  W is a one-to-one linear transformation,
then the domain of T –1 is the range of T.

 The range may or may not be all of W (one-to-one but

not onto).

 For the special case that T : V  V, then the linear

transformation is one-to-one and onto.

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Example (An Inverse
Transformation)
 Let T : R3  R3 be the linear operator defined by the formula
T (x1, x2, x3) = (3x1 + x2, -2x1 – 4x2 + 3x3, 5x1 + 4 x2 – 2x3).
Determine whether T is one-to-one; if so, find T -1(x1,x2,x3) .

 Solution: 3 1 0  4  2  3
[T ]   2  4 3  [T ]1    11 6 9 
 5 4  2  12 7 10 

  x1    x1   4  2  3  x1  4 x1  2 x2  3x3 
 
T 1   x2    [T 1 ]  x2     11 6 9   x2    11x1  6 x2  9 x3 
 x    x3   12 7 10   x3   12 x1  7 x2  10 x3 
 3
T 1 ( x1 , x2 , x3 )  (4 x1  2 x2  3x3 ,11x1  6 x2  9 x3 ,12 x1  7 x2  10 x3 )

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Theorem 8.3.3

 If T1 : U  V and T2 : V  W are one to one linear

transformation then:
 T2  T1 is one to one
 (T2  T1)-1 = T1-1  T2-1

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Matrices of General Linear
Transformations
 Remark:
 If V and W are finite-dimensional vector spaces (not
necessarily Rn and Rm), then any transformation T : V  W
can be regarded as a matrix transformation.

 The basic idea is to work with coordinate matrices of the

vectors rather than with the vectors themselves.

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Matrices of Linear Transformations
 Suppose V and W are n and m dimensional vector space and B
and B are bases for V and W, then for x in V, the coordinate
matrix [x]B will be a vector in Rn, and coordinate matrix [T(x)]
B will be a vector in R .
m

A vector in V
T A vector in W
(n-dimensional)
x T (x) (m-dimensional)

A vector in Rn [x]B [T (x)]B A vector in Rm

?

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Matrices of Linear Transformations

T maps V into W
 If we let A be the standard
matrix for this
transformation, then A [x]B =
T
x T (x) [T (x)]B

 The matrix A is called the

matrix for T with respect to
[x]B [T (x)]B
A the bases B and B

Multiplication by A
maps Rn to Rm

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 Matrices of Linear Transformations
 Let B = {u1, …, un} be a basis for the n-dimensional space V and B =
{u1, …, um} be a basis for the m-dimensional space W.
 Consider an mn matrix  a11 a12  a1n 
a a22  a2 n 
A   21
   
 
am1 am 2  amn 
such that A [x]B = [T(x)]B holds for all vectors x in V.
 That is, A [x]B = [T(x)]B has to hold for the basis vectors u1, …, un.
 Thus, we need
A [u1]B = [T(u1)]B , A [u2]B = [T(u2)]B , …, A [un]B = [T(un)]B
 Since
[u1]B = e1 , [u2]B = e2 , …, [un]B = en

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Matrices of Linear Transformations
 We have
 a11   a1n 
a  a 
[T (u1 )]B '  A [u1 ]B  A e1   21 , ...... , T [(u1 )]B '  A [u n ]B  A e n   2 n 
   
   
a
 m1  amn 
 Thus, A  [[T (u1 )]B ' | [T (u 2 )]B ' |  | [T (,uwhich
n )]B ' ] is the matrix for T w.r.t.
the bases B and B, and denoted by the symbol [T]B,B
 That is, [T ]B ', B  [[T (u1 )]B ' | [T (u 2 )]B ' |  | [T (u n )]B ' ]

[T ]B ', B [x]B  [T (x)]B '

and
Basis for the image space Basis for the domain

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Matrices for Linear Operators
 In the special case where V = W, the resulting matrix is called
the matrix for T with respect to the basis B and denoted by [T]B
rather than [T]B,B.
 If B = {u1, …, un} , then we have
[T ]B  [[T (u1 )]B | [T (u 2 )]B |  | [T (u n )]B ]
and [T ]B [x]B  [T (x)]B

 That is, the matrix for T times the coordinate matrix for x is
the coordinate matrix for T(x).

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Example
 Let T : P1  P2 be the transformations defined by
T (p(x)) = xp(x).
Find the matrix for T with respect to the standard bases,
B = {u1, u2} and B = {v1, v2, v3},
where u1 = 1, u2 = x ; v1 = 1, v2 = x , v3 = x2
 Solution:
 T(u ) = T(1) = (x)(1) = x and T(u2) = T(x) = (x)(x) = x2
1

 [T (u1)]B’ = [0 1 0]T [T (u2)]B’ = [0 0 1]T

 Thus, the matrix for T w.r.t. B and B’ is
0 0
[T ]B ', B  [[T (u1 )]B ' | [T (u 2 )]B ' ]  1 0
0 1
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Example
 Let T : R2  R3 be the linear transformation defined by
 x2 
  x1   
T        5 x1  13 x2 
  x2    7 x  16 x 
 1 2

 Find the matrix for the transformation T with respect to the

bases
B = {u1,u2} for R2 and B = {v1,v2,v3} for R3, where
1  1 0
3 5 
u1   , u 2   , v1   0 , v 2   2 , v 3  1
1  2  1  2  2
1 2
 Solution:
T (u1 )   2  v1  2 v 3 , T (u 2 )   1   3v1  v 2  v 3
  5  3
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Example
1 2
T (u1 )   2  v1  2 v 3 , T (u 2 )   1   3v1  v 2  v 3
  5  3

1 3
[T (u1 )]B '   0 , [T (u 2 )]B '   1 
 2  1
1 3
[T ]B ', B  [[T (u1 )]B ' | [T (u 2 )]B ' ]   0 1 
 2  1

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Theorems
 Theorem 8.4.1
 If T : Rn  Rm is a linear transformation and if B and B are
the standard bases for Rn and Rm, respectively, then
[T]B,B = [T]

 Theorem 8.4.2
 If T1 : U  V and T2 : V  W are linear transformations, and
if B, B and B are bases for U, V and W, respectively, then
[T2  T1]B,B’ = [T2 ]B’,B’’[T1 ]B’’,B

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Theorem 8.4.3
 If T : V  V is a linear operator and if B is a basis for V
then the following are equivalent
 T is one to one
 [T]B is invertible

 Moreover, when these equivalent conditions hold

[T-1]B = [T]B-1

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Indirect Computation of a Linear
Transformation
 An indirect procedure to compute a linear
transformation:
1) Compute the coordinate matrix [x]B
2) Multiply [x]B on the left by [T]B,B to produce [T (x)]B
3) Reconstruct T (x) from its coordinate matrix [T (x)]B
Direction
x computation
T (x)

(1) (3)

Multiply by [T]B,B
[x]B [T (x)]B
(2)

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Example
 Let T : P2  P2 be linear operator defined by T(p(x)) = p(3x – 5),
that is, T (co + c1x + c2x2) = co + c1(3x – 5) + c2(3x – 5)2
 Find [T]B with respect to the basis B = {1, x, x2}
 Use the indirect procedure to compute T (1 + 2x + 3x2)
 Check the result by computing T (1 + 2x + 3x2)

 Solution:
 Form the formula for T,

T(1) = 1, T(x) = 3x – 5, T(x2) = (3x – 5)2 = 9x2 – 30x + 25

 Thus,
1  5 25 
[T ]B  0 3  30
0 0 9 

111/10/12 Elementary Linear Algebra 53

Example 1  5 25 
[T ]B  0 3  30
0 0 9 

 The coordinate matrix relative to B for vector p = 1 + 2x + 3x2 is

[p]B = [1 2 3]T.
1  5 25  1   66 
    
 Thus, [T (1 + 2x + 3x2)]B = [T (p)]B = [T]B [p]B = 0 3  30 2   84
0 0 9  3  27 
 T (1 + 2x + 3x2) = 66 – 84x + 27x2

Direction
 By direction computation: x computation T (x)
 T (1 + 2x + 3x2) = 1 + 2(3x – 5) + 3(3x – 5)2
= 1 + 6x – 10 + 27x2 – 90x
(1) + 75 (3)

= 66 – 84x + 27x2
Multiply by [T]B,B
[x]B [T (x)]B
(2)

111/10/12 Elementary Linear Algebra 54

Change of Basis

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Similarity
 The matrix of a linear operator T : V  V depends on the
basis selected for V that makes the matrix for T as simple
as possible – a diagonal or triangular matrix.

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 Simple Matrices for Linear Operators
 Consider the linear operator T : R2  R2 defined by T   x1     x1  x2 
 x   2x  4x
and the standard basis B = {e1, e2} for R .
2  2  1 2

 The matrix for T with respect to this basis is the standard matrix
for T;
that is, [T]B = [T] = [T(e1) | T(e2)].
 1 1
 Since T (e1) = [1 -2]T, T (e2) = [1 4]T, we have [T ]B   2 4
 

 However, if u1 = [1 1]T, u2 = [1 2]T, then the matrix for T with

respect to the basis B = {u1, u2} is the diagonal matrix
 2 0
[T ]B '   
 0 3 

111/10/12 Elementary Linear Algebra 64

Theorem 8.5.1

 If B and B are bases for a finite-dimensional vector

space V, and if I : V  V is the identity operator, then
[I]B,B is the transition matrix from B to B.

 Remark

I
V
V
v v
Basis = B Basis = B

[I]B,B is the transition matrix from B to B.

111/10/12 Elementary Linear Algebra 65

Theorem
 Theorem 8.5.2
 Let T : V  V be a linear operator on a finite-dimensional

vector space V, and let B and B be bases for V. Then

[T]B = P-1 [T]B P
where P is the transition matrix from B to B.

 Remark:
I T I
v
V V v V T(v) V T(v)
Basis = B Basis = B Basis = B Basis = B

[T]B = [I]B,B[T]B[I]B,B = P-1 [T]B P

111/10/12 Elementary Linear Algebra 66

Example
x   x  x 
T   1     1 2 
 Let T : R2  R2 be defined by   x2    2 x1  4 x2 

Find the matrix T with respect to the standard basis B = {e1,

e2} for R2, then use Theorem 8.5.2 to find the matrix of T with
respect to the basis B = {u1, u2}, where u1 = [1 1]T and u2 =
[1 2]T.  1 1
 Solution: [T ]B    P  [ I ]B.B '  [[u1 ' ]B | [u 2 ' ]B ]
 2 4

1 1   2  1
P  P 1   
1 2  1 1 
 2  1  1 1  1 1  2 0
T B '  P 1 T B P         
 1 1   2 4 1 2 0 3

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Definitions
 Definition
 If A and B are square matrices, we say that B is similar to A
if there is an invertible matrix P such that B = P-1AP

 Definition
 A property of square matrices is said to be a similarity
invariant or invariant under similarity if that property is
shared by any two similar matrices.

111/10/12 Elementary Linear Algebra 68

 Similarity Invariants
Property Description
Determinant A and P-1AP have the same determinant.
Invertibility A is invertible if and only if P-1AP is invertible.
Rank A and P-1AP have the same rank.
Nullity A and P-1AP have the same nullity.
Trace A and P-1AP have the same trace.
Characteristic polynomial A and P-1AP have the same characteristic polynomial.
Eigenvalues A and P-1AP have the same eigenvalues
Eigenspace dimension If  is an eigenvalue of A and P-1AP then the
eigenspace of A corresponding to  and the
eigenspace of P-1AP corresponding to  have the
same dimension.

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Determinant of A Linear Operator
 Two matrices representing the same linear operator T : V  V with
respect to different bases are similar.
 For any two bases B and B we must have
det([T]B) = det([T]B)
 Thus we define the determinant of the linear operator T to be
det(T) = det([T]B)
where B is any basis for V.
 Example   x1    x1  x2 
 Let T : R2  R2 be defined by T       
x
 2   2 x1  4 x 2
 1 1
[T ]B    det(T )  6
  2 4
2 0
T B '    det(T )  6
 0 3

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Eigenvalues of a Linear Operator
 A scalar  is called an eigenvalue of a linear operator T : V 
V if there is a nonzero vector x in V such that Tx = x. The
vector x is called an eigenvector of T corresponding to .

 Equivalently, the eigenvectors of T corresponding to  are the

nonzero vectors in the kernel of I – T. This kernel is called
the eigenspace of T corresponding to .

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Eigenvalues of a Linear Operator

 If V is a finite-dimensional vector space, and B is any basis

for V, then

 The eigenvalues of T are the same as the eigenvalues of [T]B .

 A vector x is an eigenvector of T corresponding to [T]B if and

only if its coordinate matrix [x]B is an eigenvector of [T]B
corresponding to .

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Example
 Find the eigenvalues and bases for the eigenvalues of the
linear operator T : P2  P2 defined by
T (a + bx + cx2) = -2c + (a + 2b + c)x + (a + 3c)x2
 Solution: 0 0  2
 1 
 The eigenvalues of T are= 1 and = 2 T B  1 2
1 0 3 
 The eigenvectors of [T] are:
B

 = 2:  1 0  =1:2
u1   0 , u 2  1 u3   1 
 1  0  1 

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Example
 Let T : R3  R3 be the linear operator given by
  x1     2 x3 
  
T   x2     x1  2 x2  x3 
  x    x  3x 
 3  1 3 
Find a basis for R3 relative to which the matrix for T is
diagonal.
 Solution:
 det(

2 0 0
[T ]B '  0 2 0
0 0 1

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Onto Transformations
 Let V and W be real vector spaces. We say that the linear
transformation T : V  W is onto if the range of T is W.
 An onto transformation is also said to be surjective or to be a
surjection. For a surjective mapping, the range and the
codomain coincide.
 If a transformation T : V  W is both one-to-one (also called
injective or an injection) and onto, then it is a one-to-one
mapping to its range W and so has an inverse T-1 : W  V.
 A transformation that is one-to-one and onto is also said to be
bijective or to be a bijection between V and W.

111/10/12 Elementary Linear Algebra 75

Theorem 8.6.1
 Bijective Linear Transformation

 Let V and W be finite-dimensional vector spaces. If dim(V)

 dim(W), then there can be no bijective linear
transformation from V to W.

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Isomorphisms
 Definition
 An isomorphism between V and W is a bijective linear

transformation from V to W.

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Isomorphisms
 Theorem 8.6.2 (Isomorphism Theorem)
 Let V be a finite-dimensional real vector space. If dim(V) =
n, then there is an isomorphism from V to Rn.

 Example
 The vector space P3 is isomorphic to R4, because the
transformation
T(a + bx + cx2 + dx3) = (a,b,c,d)
is one-to-one, onto, and linear.

111/10/12 Elementary Linear Algebra 78

Isomorphisms between Vector
Spaces
 Theorem 8.6.3 (Isomorphism of Finite-Dimensional Vector
Spaces)
 Let V and W be finite-dimensional vector spaces. If dim(V)

= dim(W), then V and W are isomorphic.

111/10/12 Elementary Linear Algebra 79

Example
 An Isomorphism between P3 and M22
 Because dim(P3) = 4 and dim(M22) = 4, these spaces are
isomorphic.
 We can find an isomorphism T : P3  M22:
1 0 0 1  2 0 0  3 0 0 
T (1)    T ( x)    T (x )    T (x )   
 0 0   0 0  1 0   0 1 

 This is one-to-one and onto linear transformation, so it is an

isomorphism between P3 and M22.

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