Republic of the Philippines

TARLAC STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
GRADUATE SCHOOL
Lucinda Campus, Tarlac City
3rd Trimester 2021-2022

TLE – 505 AGRONOMY

 Session Objectives:
 Definition of Soil Structure.
 Identify Chemical Properties and Biological
Properties of the Soil.
 Enumerate the methods of soil testing.
 Soil Structure

TLE 505 AGRONOMY

 Physical Structure
Physical Properties

Physical properties of a soil including soil texture and soil

structure are important to plant growth. Soil texture affects the soil
ability to hold nutrients and water. Soil structure affects aeration,
water holding capacity, drainage and penetration of roots. Find out
how to classify soil texture, and the importance of having the right
balance of soil, air and water to plant growth.

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 Physical Structure
Physical properties of a soil that affect a plant’s ability to grow
include:

Soil texture, which affects the soil’s ability to hold onto

nutrients (cation exchange capacity) and water. Texture refers
to the relative distribution of the different sized particles in the
soil. It is a stable property of soils and, hence, is used in soil
classification and description.

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 Physical Structure
Physical properties of a soil that affect a plant’s ability to grow
include:
Soil structure, which affects aeration, water-holding capacity,
drainage, and penetration by roots and seedlings. Soil structure
refers to the arrangement of soil particles into aggregates (or peds)
and the distribution of pores in between. It is not a stable property
and is greatly influenced by soil management practices.

TLE 505 AGRONOMY

 Soil Texture
Soil texture classes

The names of soil texture classes are intended to give you an

idea of their textural make-up and physical properties. The three
basic groups of texture classes are sands, clays and loams.

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 Soil Texture
Soil texture classes

A soil in the sand group contains at least 70% by weight of sand.

A soil in the clay group must contain at least 35% clay and, in most
cases, not less than 40%. A loam soil is, ideally, a mixture of sand,
silt and clay particles that exhibit light and heavy properties in about
equal proportions, so a soil in the loam group will start from this
point and then include greater or lesser amounts of sand, silt or clay.

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 Soil Texture

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 Soil Structure
 The arrangement of soil particles (sand, silt and clay )
and pores in the soil and to the ability of the particles to
form aggregates.

 Aggregates are groups of soil particles held together by

organic matter or chemical forces. Pores are the spaces
in the soil.

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 Soil Structure

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 Soil Water
Water within the soil strongly influences plant growth and the
biological functioning of the soil. It provides a medium for
substances to dissolve into, including nutrient elements, allowing
them to be accessible to plant roots. Water also enables nutrients
to be transported off the farm, and contributes to erosion and
weathering processes. The soil texture influences how water is
held within the soil and also the rate that water will infiltrate the
soil

TLE 505 AGRONOMY

 Soil Water
Too much water

When all the soil pores fill with water during rainfall or
irrigation the soil can become saturated or waterlogged. Plants
require both air and water within the soil. When a soil is
waterlogged, especially for periods longer than a couple of
days, plants can suffer. Plants require oxygen to respire and
produce energy, without this they can’t grow. When soils are
waterlogged fertilizer application should be avoided.

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 Soil Water
Too little water

As the soil dries out, the soil particles (particularly clay)

tend to hold onto water more tightly than the plant is able to
extract water. Therefore water is held in the soil with increasing
strength as soil dries out. At this point, when the plant is unable
to extract enough water it wilts and doesn’t recover. This is
called the wilting point or the lower extractable limit.
.

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 Soil Water
The right balance of air and water
Just after the soil has been saturated and starts to drain, the large
pore spaces have air again and there is ample water available for
plants. This is when the soil is at field capacity. Field capacity varies
depending upon soil texture. Once plants have used up the water
that’s readily available, the soil reaches refill point. The soil moisture
level between the refill point and field capacity is called the readily
available water (RAW). RAW is the water that plants can easily
extract from the soil, and is also the level that irrigators aim to
maintain, unless they are intentionally stressing plants.
.
.
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 Soil Water

Relationship between soil texture and water availability

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 Chemical Properties
Chemical Properties

Chemical properties of the soil are important to soil fertility and plant
growth. Find out how chemical and physical properties of the soil interact
to affect the soil’s capacity to store and release nutrients, and understand
how soil chemistry can affect soil structure. Also find out about the soil
solution and what this means to soil pH and soil salinity

TLE 505 AGRONOMY

 Chemical Properties
The chemical properties of soils that are important to plant
growth are:
Nutrient availability and cation exchange capacity, which affect the
soil’s inherent fertility and its ability to hold nutrient cations such as
calcium, potassium and magnesium.

The chemical characteristics of the soil solution, which affect pH and

salinity.
. TLE 505 AGRONOMY
.
 Chemical Properties
The availability of nutrients within the soil is also dependent on a range
of factors such as soil pH, soil solution, soil type and the plant age, type
and root system of the plant.

Plant nutrients are composed of single elements (for example,

potassium (K)) or compounds of elements (for example, ammonium
nitrate (NH4NO3)). In all cases, the nutrients are all composed of atoms.

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 Chemical Properties
Mineral nutrients are absorbed by plants from the soil solution as ions.
An ion is an electrically charged particle formed by the removal or
addition of electrons from an atom or molecule.

An ion with a positive electrical charge is called a cation.

An ion with a negative electrical charge is called an anion.

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 Chemical Properties
Cations include: Anions include:
sodium (Na+) chloride (Cl-)
potassium (K+) nitrate (NO3-)
calcium (Ca++) sulphate (SO4–)
magnesium (Mg++) and carbonate (CO3–)
aluminum (Al+++). phosphate (H₂PO₄-) and
boric acid (BO₃—).

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 Chemical Properties
Cations and anions are not equally held by the soil particle. More
positive charges mean an increasing ability to bond with a negatively
charged surface. More negative charges mean an increasing ability to bond
with a positively charged surface. The order of strength of adsorption is;
Al³⁺> H⁺> Ca²⁺> Mg²⁺> K⁺> NH₄> Na⁺.
For example, plant root cells can secrete H⁺ ions that can displace
weaker ions like K⁺ which then are available for plants to take up.

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 Chemical Properties
The cations and anions can be:
Absorbed (taken up) by plant roots.
Leached from the soil via the soil water.
Adsorbed (attached) to the surfaces of negatively and positively charged
soil particles.

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Chemical Properties
The cations are held on the surface of
soil minerals and organic matter and within
the crystalline framework of some clay
minerals. The greater the surface area
available to adsorb cations, the higher the
soil’s inherent fertility. Thus, soil texture
has an effect on soil fertility because of the
sizes of the particles that make up the
various soil texture classes and so does the
amount of organic matter.

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 Chemical Properties

As you can see, soils with a high clay or organic matter content provide a
much greater surface area for cations to adsorb onto.

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 Chemical Properties
As long as the nutrient cations and anions are adsorbed onto the soil
particles, they cannot be absorbed by plants or leached from the soil, unless
the whole clay particle is carried away via erosion. However, they are not
held too tightly and can be exchanged with other ions of a like charge that
are in the soil solution. Within these exchanges some cations (such as Ca²⁺)
are held more tightly than other cations such as Na⁺ and Mg²⁺. Once the
nutrients are in the soil solution, they can be absorbed by the plant’s roots,
used by soil biology or lost to leaching.

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 Soil Solution

Soil water is the water held within the soil pores. Soil solution
is the soil water together with its dissolved salts (cations and
anions). The soil solution is the medium by which most soil
nutrients are supplied to growing plants. It also has a role in soil
salinity and pH.

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 Soil Salinity
Soil salinity is an increased concentration of salts in the soil solution. In
general, as soil moisture is reduced, especially by evaporation, the
concentration of soluble salts of sodium, calcium, magnesium, and
potassium in the soil solution increases. These salts may already be present
in the soil solution or they can be carried upward from the ground water by
capillary action if the watertable rises.

TLE 505 AGRONOMY

 Soil Salinity
The concentration of soluble salts can become so high as to interfere with
the growth of plants. Soils that have a salt concentration in the plant root
zone that is sufficient to interfere seriously with plant growth are called
saline soils.

Salinity can occur on dryland farms and on irrigated farms. The salinity
that occurs is the same in either case, only the initiating causes and
management methods may be different.

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 Soil pH
The soil solution can be neutral, acid, or alkaline. This is called the soil
pH. The pH measures the concentration of positively charged hydrogen ions
(H+) in the soil solution on a logarithmic scale ranging from 0 to 14. When
a soil solution contains more H+ ions, it is acidic. When there are fewer H+
ions [i.e., more hydroxyl (OH⁻) ions], the soil solution is alkaline.
The level of acidity or alkalinity in a soil affects the availability of soil
nutrients and the activity of soil micro-organisms and can affect the level of
exchangeable aluminum.

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 Biological Properties
Biological properties include the living organisms and the organic matter
in the soil. The interactions between soil biology and other soil properties
are complex, but important.

Living Organisms

Living organisms are an important fraction of the soil. Their presence is

encouraged by high organic matter levels, adequate soil moisture, and good
drainage and aeration.
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 Biological Properties
Living Organisms

Many living organisms are found in healthy soil, from large creatures, such as
earthworms, to the smallest bacteria. Soil organisms help to decompose organic
matter. The burrowing habit of the larger organisms incorporates the organic matter
into the soil and also creates large pore spaces that aerate the soil and allow faster
water infiltration. The smaller organisms, such as bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi,
yeasts, algae and protozoa, further decompose the organic matter, which releases
nutrients in a form that plants can use.

TLE 505 AGRONOMY

 Biological Properties
Organic Matter

Organic matter is anything that is living or the remains of a living thing.

However, in the context of soil composition, organic matter is a build-up in
the soil of decayed plant and animal residues.
Organic soils, such as peats, contain from 20% to as much as 95%
organic matter. Mineral soils contain anywhere from a trace to 15% or 20%
organic matter. Organic matter is composed of about 57% organic carbon.

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 Biological Properties
Organic Matter

The benefits of organic matter in the soil include improving soil structure and
increasing the nutrient and water holding capacity of the soil. Organic matter also
provides a food supply for soil biology. Soils with low organic matter can have
‘poor’ structure, hold little water, and erode or leach nutrients easily. The exception
is cracking clay soils where clay minerals have the main effect on structure. Soils
with high organic matter levels have ‘good’ structure, good water-holding capacity,
and reduced erosion and nutrient leaching.

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 Soil Profile
A soil profile describes the various layers within the soil and can be seen
as a vertical section through the soil. Pastures and crops therefore prefer
deep well drained soils with good texture and structure. Soil profiles are
used to classify soils.
The depth of soil or ‘soil depth’ is the material that favours plant growth.
Physical and chemical barriers and high water tables can restrict rooting
depth which can affect plant growth. For example hard pans, or gravel
layers. Pastures and crops therefore prefer deep well drained soils with good
texture and structure
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 Soil Profile

Each horizon is a layer within the soil

profile that has distinct characteristics, such
as colour, texture or structure that are
different from the layer above or below it.

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 Soil Profile
Soil profile description
Soils are called gradational, duplex or uniform
based on how the soil texture changes from the A to
the B horizon. In a gradational soil, the clay content
gradually increases, so that the change from the A
horizon to the B horizon is indistinct – See Figure
4.7a. In a duplex soil, a sharp contrast in texture
occurs between the A and B horizons, and the two
horizons are easily distinguished.

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 Soil Formation
Soil profile description

Understanding the soil formation and composition of your soil is

important, as the parent material will dictate how the soil will behave.
Understanding soil formation also helps in understanding which parts of
the landscape certain soil types are likely be found. Having this
understanding can help to guide land-use decisions and management.

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 Soil Formation
How soil formed?

Soil formation is a function of regional climate, parent material,

topography, relief, biological factors and time. Parent material and
landform are the initial reference states for a soil and climate and
biological factors determine the rate of soil development. Time
determines the stage of the soil forming processes

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 Soil Formation

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 Soil Fertility
Before applying fertilizer, farmers need to assess which
nutrients and how much of each is to be applied to correct
deficiencies, or to balance what has been removed by the farming
system. Many factors must be taken into account before making
the final decision.

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 Soil Fertility
Soil Testing
Soil testing is used to work out fertilizer, lime and gypsum
requirements. It’s also used to monitor changes in soil nutrient
levels over time. The accuracy of soil testing depends on the
following: collecting a representative soil sample, correct
packaging and transportation, the laboratory standards, and the test
methods used.

TLE 505 AGRONOMY

 Soil Fertility
Soil testing is very useful for assessing:
 Fertilizer type and rate of nutrients required
 Lime requirements
 Gypsum requirements
 Changes in soil nutrient levels over time

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 Soil Fertility
Soil testing method:
Aggregate Stability
Soil aggregation is a process whereby microbes combine the
minerals and organic matter to form larger clumps of soil, called
aggregates. A higher degree of aggregation indicates a healthier soil,
which means more air and larger pores for root growth. That special black
forest soil is highly aggregated.

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 Soil Fertility
Soil testing method:
Earthworm Count
Microbes are extremely important for healthy soil but they are impossible to see
or measure by the gardener. Microbes are the favorite food of earthworms and a higher
number of earthworms indicates more microbes. An earthworm count is a simple way to
estimate the number of microbes.
As soil dries, earthworms move deeper in the soil and counts become inaccurate.
Counts are also lower, early and late in the season. It is a good idea to test several times
during the season and take an average.

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 Soil Fertility
Soil testing method:
Test Kit for pH
Test kits for pH will give you a very general idea of your pH. Kits
and probes designed for home gardeners are not accurate enough to allow
you to know how much soil amendment you need to change pH. Besides, in
most cases it is better not to try to change your pH.

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 Soil Fertility
Soil testing method:
Soil Texture
Soil texture is a measure of the mineral components in soil – the
sand, silt and clay. Sand makes soil gritty, and clay makes it feel smooth.
Soil texture can be measured in several ways by home gardeners.

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 Soil Fertility
Soil testing method:
Percolation Test
The percolation test, or perc test, measures how well your soil drains.
It is an easy test for the home gardener and requires no special equipment.

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Thank you
TLE 505 AGRONOMY
TLE 505 AGRONOMY