Consultancy Project Experiential Learning

MGT529
Dr. Khurrum S. Mughal
Lecture 3
Cognitivism
 Cognitivism

• In psychology, cognitivism is a theoretical
framework for understanding the mind that
gained credence in the 1950s. The movement
was a response to behaviorism,
which cognitivists said neglected to explain
cognition.
 Cognitivism

• "the psychology of learning which emphasizes

human cognition or intelligence as a special
endowment enabling man to form hypotheses
and develop intellectually“

• It is also known as cognitive development. 

 Cognitivism

• The underlying concepts of cognitivism involve

how we think and gain knowledge. 

• Cognitivism involves examining learning,

memory, problem solving skills, and
intelligence.  
 Cognitivism

• Grew in response to Behaviorism

• Knowledge is stored cognitively as symbols
• Learning is the process of connecting symbols
in a meaningful & memorable way
• Studies focused on the mental processes that
facilitate symbol connection
 Cognitivism

• Cognitive growth involves an interaction

between basic human capabilities and
"culturally invented technologies that serve as
amplifiers of these capabilities.“
– These culturally invented technologies include not
just obvious things such as computers and
television, but also more abstract notions such as
the way a culture categorizes phenomena, and
language itself.
 Cognitive Learning Theory

 Discovery Learning - Jerome Bruner

 Meaningful Verbal Learning – David Ausubel

 Cognitive Learning Theory
 Discovery Learning

1. Bruner said anybody can learn anything at

any age, provided it is stated in terms they
can understand.
 Cognitive Learning Theory
 Discovery Learning

2. Powerful Concepts (not isolated facts)

a. Transfer to many different situations
b. Only possible through Discovery Learning
c. Confront the learner with problems and help
them find solutions.
d. Do not present sequenced materials.
 Discovery Learning
• Discovery learning is an inquiry­based,
constructivist learning theory that takes place
in problem solving situations where the
learner draws on his or her own past
experience and existing knowledge to
discover facts and relationships and new
truths to be learned.
• Students interact with the world by exploring
and manipulating objects, wrestling with
questions and controversies, or performing
experiments.
 Discovery Learning
• Result: students may be more likely to
remember concepts and knowledge
discovered on their own (in contrast to a
transmissionist model).
• Models that are based upon discovery
learning model include: guided discovery,
problem­based learning, simulation­based
learning, case­based learning, incidental
learning, among others.
 Cognitive Learning Theory

 Meaningful Verbal Learning

Advance Organizers:

New material is presented in a systematic

way, and is connected to existing cognitive
structures in a meaningful way.
 Cognitive Learning Theory
 Meaningful Verbal Learning

When learners have difficulty with new

material, go back to the concrete anchors
(Advance Organizers). Provide a Discovery
approach, and they’ll learn.
 Meaningful Verbal Learning
• The key concept for Ausubel is the cognitive
structure. He sees this as the sum of all the
knowledge we have acquired as well as the
relationships among the facts, concepts and
principles that make up that knowledge.
Learning for Ausubel is bringing something
new into our cognitive structure and attaching
it to our existing knowledge that is located
there. 
 Cognitivism in the Classroom

• Inquiry-oriented projects
• Opportunities for the testing of hypotheses
• Curiosity encouraged
• Staged scaffolding
 Cognitivism and Practice
• Information Processing looks at how information is stored and
retrieved.
• Learning is attained through rehearsal and consistent use of the
information.
– Retention strategies such as breaking down information and
comparing the information to long term storage are great
techniques.
 Critiques of Cognitivism
• Like Behaviorism, knowledge itself is given and
absolute
• Input – Process – Output model is mechanistic
and deterministic
• Does not account enough for individuality
• Little emphasis on affective characteristics,
especially motivation
Social Learning Theory
 Social Learning Theory (SLT)
• Grew out of Cognitivism
• Alferd Bandura (1973)
• Learning takes place through observation and
sensorial experiences
• Imitation is the sincerest form of flattery
• SLT is the basis of the movement against
violence in media & video games
 Social Learning Theory (SLT)
• Bandura’s Social Learning Theory posits that
people learn from one another, via
observation, imitation, and modeling.

• The theory has often been called a bridge

between behaviorist and cognitive learning
theories because it encompasses attention,
memory, and motivation.
 Social Learning Theory
Necessary Conditions for effective modeling:
1. Attention to pertinent clues
2. Code for memory (store a visual image) retention
3. Accurately reproduce the observed activity

4. Possess sufficient motivation to apply new learning

 Social Learning Theory
Research indicates that the following factors influence
the strength of learning from models:

1. How much power the model seems to have

2. How capable the model seems to be
3. How nurturing (caring) the model seems to be
4. How similar the learner perceives self and
model
5. How many models the learner observes
 Social Learning Theory

Four interrelated processes establish and

strengthen identification with the model:

1. Children want to be like the model

2. Children believe they are like the
model
3. Children experience emotions like
those the model is feeling.
4. Children act like the model.
 Social Learning Theory

Through identification, children come to

believe they have the same characteristics
as the model.
When they identify with a nurturant and
competent model, children feel pleased and
proud.
When they identify with an inadequate model,
children feel unhappy and insecure.
 SLT in the Classroom
• Collaborative
learning and group
work
• Modeling responses
and expectations
• Opportunities to
observe experts in
action
Critiques of Social Learning Theory
• Does not take into account individuality,
context, and experience as mediating factors
• Suggests students learn best as passive
receivers of sensory stimuli, as opposed to
being active learners
• Emotions and motivation not considered
important or connected to learning
Social Constructivism
 Constructivism
• Constructivism views learning as a process in
which the learners constructs knowledge
based on their past experiences.
 Social Constructivism

• Grew out of and in response to Cognitivism, framed

around metacognition
Metacognition refers to higher order thinking which involves active control
over the cognitive processes engaged in learning. Activities such as
planning how to approach a given learning task, monitoring
comprehension, and evaluating progress toward the completion of a
task are metacognitive in nature.

Metacognition – simply put is learning about learning, but more

realistically, it’s about knowing who you are as a learner, and developing
the capacity to leverage your strengths to your advantage while
purposefully addressing your weaknesses

• Knowledge is actively constructed

 Social Constructivism

• Learning is…
– A search for meaning by the learner
– Contextualized
– An inherently social activity
– Dialogic and recursive
– The responsibility of the learner
Social Constructivism in the Classroom

• Journaling
• Experiential activities
• Personal focus
• Collaborative &
cooperative learning
 Critiques of Social Constructivism
• Suggests that knowledge is neither given nor
absolute
• Often seen as less rigorous than traditional
approaches to instruction
• Does not fit well with traditional age grouping
and rigid terms/semesters
Multiple Intelligences (MI)
 Multiple Intelligences (MI)
• Grew out of Constructivism, framed around
metacognition
• H. Gardner (1983 to present)
• All people are born with eight intelligences:
1. Verbal-Linguistic 5. Musical
2. Visual-Spatial 6. Naturalist
3. Logical-Mathematical 7. Interpersonal
4. Kinesthetic 8. Intrapersonal

• Enables students to leverage their strengths and

purposefully target and develop their weaknesses
 MI in the Classroom

• Delivery of
instruction via
multiple mediums
• Student-centered
classroom
• Authentic
Assessment
• Self-directed learning
 Critiques of MI
• Lack of quantifiable evidence that MI exist
• Lack of evidence that use of MI as a curricular
and methodological approach has any
discernable impact on learning
• Suggestive of a departure from core curricula
and standards
Brain Based Learning
 Brain-Based Learning (BBL)
• Grew out of Neuroscience & Constructivism
• D. Souza, N. Caine & G. Caine, E. Jensen (1980’s to
present)
• 12 governing principles
1. Brain is a parallel processor 7. Focused attention & peripheral perception
2. Whole body learning 8. Conscious & unconscious processes
3. A search for meaning 9. Several types of memory
4. Patterning 10. Embedded learning sticks
5. Emotions are critical 11. Challenge & threat
6. Processing of parts and wholes 12. Every brain is unique
 BBL in the Classroom
• Opportunities for group
learning
• Regular environmental
changes
• A multi-sensory
environment
• Opportunities for self-
expression and making
personal connections to
content
• Community-based
learning
 Critiques of BBL

• Research conducted by neuroscientists, not

teachers & educational researchers
• Lack of understanding of the brain itself makes
“brain-based” learning questionable
• Individual principles have been scientifically
questioned
 Other Learning Theories of Note
• Andragogy (M. Knowles)
• Flow (M. Czikszentmihalyi)
• Situated Learning (J. Lave)

• Conditions of Learning (R. Gagne)

 Humanist
• All students are intrinsically motivated to self
actualize or learn
• Learning is dependent upon meeting a
hierarchy of needs (physiological,
psychological and intellectual)
• Learning should be reinforced.
Formal and Informal Settings for Learning
 Formal Settings
• Schools
• Colleges
• Universities
• On the job trainings
• Off the job trainings
 Informal settings
• Social settings
– Peer group
– Friends
– Family
– Social networks
• Informal situations
• Workplace
 So what?

Why is an understanding of learning theory

important for educators and students?
 Epistemology
• Our beliefs about the nature of knowledge,
our epistemology, profoundly influence our
approach to education.
 Psychology of Learning
• Our beliefs about how people learn, our
psychology of learning, profoundly influence
our approach to education or our approach
to learning process.
 Epistemology – Theory - Practice
• All three of these need to align
– Our beliefs about knowledge

– Our beliefs about learning

– Our strategies for practice

 Learning theories as glasses
• What would a classroom look like as
viewed through the lens of:
– Plato (rationalist)
– Aristotle (empiricist)
– Locke (tabula rasa)

• Or from these perspectives?

– Behaviorism
– Constructivism
– Sociocultural
– Cognitivism
What does learning look like?
“Experience is, for me, the highest authority.
The touchstone of validity is my own
experience. No other person’s ideas, and
none of my own ideas, are as authoritative
as my experience. It is to experience that I
must return again and again, to discover a
closer approximation to truth as it is in the
process of becoming in me.”
(Carl Rogers)
Cognitive Experiential
Memorizing facts Doing and experiencing
 “Experiential learning takes place

when a person involved in an activity

looks back and evaluates it,

determines what was useful or important to

remember,

and uses this information to perform another

activity.”

John Dewey
 Experiential Learning
• The learner is a participant rather than a
spectator in learning.
• Experiential learning occurs when carefully
chosen experiences are supported by
reflection, critical analysis, and synthesis.
• Learning must have present as well as future
relevance for learners and the society in which
they will participate.
 Experiential Learning
• The results of the learning are personal and
form the basis for future experiences and
learning.
• Relationships are developed: learner to self,
learner to others, and learner to the world at
large.
• Individuals increase their awareness of how
personal values and meanings influence their
perceptions of choices of action.
Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory
• “…learning is the process whereby knowledge
is created through the transformation of
experience” (Kolb, 1984, p. 38)
• Integrating new information into existing
knowledge
• Involving the whole person
• Transacting between the person and the
environment
 Six Propositions of Learning
• Learning is a process, not outcome
• Learning is relearning
• Learners move between reflection, action,
thinking, feeling
• Learning is holistic
• Learning involves interactions with the
environment and the learner
• Learning is constructivist – abstract and
concrete
 Four Processes of Learning
• Watching
– Senses – perceiving information
• Thinking
– Mind – reflecting how it impacts life
• Feeling
– Emotions – fitting into learner’s experiences
• Doing
– Muscle – performing new ways to act
Four Learning Stages
Concrete
Experience

Active Reflective
Experimentation Observation

Abstract
Conceptualization
 Concrete Experience
• Doing or having an experience
 Reflective Observation
• Reviewing or reflecting on the experience
 Abstract Conceptualization
• Concluding or learning from the experience
 Active Experimentation
• Planning or trying out what you have learned
Activities to Support Each Phase
Concrete Experience Reflective Observation
• Labs • Logs
• Observations • Journals
• Field work • Discussions
• Trigger films • Brainstorming
• Readings • Thought questions
• Problem sets • Rhetorical questions
• Examples

Abstract Conceptualization Active Experimentation

• Lectures • Simulations
• Reports • Case studies
• Models • Labs
• Projects • Field work
• Analogies • Projects
Which learning stage do you prefer
or learn more effectively from?
 Four Learning Styles

Accommodator Diverger

Converger Assimilator
 Accommodator
• Learns through concrete experience
• Transforms learning into abstract
experimentation
• Leaders, risk takers, needs a mentor, strength
in doing, likes examples

• Teaches students by encouragement,

modeling
 Diverger
• Learns through concrete experience
• Transforms learning by reflective observation
• Likes to brainstorm, solve problems,
imaginative, emotional, people person

• Teaches through lectures and motivates

students to learn
 Converger
• Learns through abstract conceptualization
• Transforms information through active
experimentation – by doing
• Prefers objects, dislikes group activities, likes
questioning, problem-solver, unemotional

• Teaches by questioning and encouraging

students
 Assimilator
• Learn through abstract conceptualization
• Transform learning through reflective
observation
• Likes reading, research, organizing, working
alone, likes class calendar

• Teaches students by lecturing, traditional

classroom
 Which learning style are you?
• Accomodator

• Diverger

• Converger

• Assimilator
Kolb’s Experiential Learning Cycle

• Concrete Experience • Reflective

Observation

Diverger
Accommodator

Converger
Assimilator

• Active Experimentation • Abstract

Conceptualization
 Similarities
• Use of environment/experiences for learning
– Constructivist Learning Theory (Vygotsky)
– Behaviorist’s Theory (Skinner)
• Learn through social interactions
– Social Learning Theory (Bandura)
• Affective and cognitive dimensions of learning
– Humanist Theory (Freud, Rogers)
 Critique
• Cultural considerations are not included
• Little research support
• Stages of learning may be sequenced
differently
• Does not apply in all types of learning
situations
• Insufficient information on reflection
• Doesn’t explore nature of knowledge in depth
– Smith, (2001).
 Experiential Learning Model

1
EXPERIENCE
the activity;
perform, do it

5 2
APPLY SHARE
what was learned Do the results,
to a similar or reactions, and
different situation; observations
practice publicly

Apply Reflect
3
4
PROCESS
GENERALIZE
by discussing,
to connect the
locking at the
experience to
experience;
real world
analyze, reflect
examples
 EXPERIENCE the activity;
do it
• Begin with a concrete experience that:
– Can be individual or group experience, but
involves doing.
– Most likely will be unfamiliar to learner or first-
time activity
– Pushes learning beyond previous performance
levels
– May be uncomfortable to learner
– Includes the risk of failure
SHARE reactions and observations
publicly
• Get participants to talk about experience
• Share reactions and observations
• Discuss feelings generated by the experience
• Let the group (or individual) talk freely and
acknowledge ideas generated
 PROCESS by analyzing and reflecting
upon what happened
• Discuss how the experience was carried out
• Discuss how themes, problems, and issues are
brought out by the experience
• Discuss how specific problems or issues were
addressed
• Discuss personal experiences of members
• Encourage the group to look for recurring themes
 GENERALIZE note what was learned
and connect to real life
• Find general trends or common truths in the
experience
• Identify “real life” principles that surfaced
• Identify key items that were learned
• List key terms that capture the learning
APPLY what was learned to similar
or different situations
• Discuss how new learning can be applied to
other situations
• Discuss how issues raised can be useful in the
future
• Discuss how more effective behaviors can
develop from new learning
• Help each individual feel a sense of ownership
for what is learned
Few Work Related Skills
 Few work related skills
• Action planning
• Entrepreneurship
• Decision making – problem solving
• Negotiation
• Social net working
• Resource utilization
• Self appraisal
• Team working
• Effective communication
 Action planning
• It is about learning “defining a goals and
devising means to achieve that goal with in a
given period of time”.
• An action plan is comprised of;
– Specific tasks – what will be done and by whom?
– Time horizon – when will it be done?
– Resource allocation – what specific funds are available for
specific activities.
 Entrepreneurship
• The capacity and willingness to develop,
organize and manage a business venture along
with any of its risks in order to make a profit.
• Starting a new business to produce profits by
employing
– Land
– Labor
– Capital
– Natural resources
 Decision making
• The thought process of selecting a logical choice from the
available options.
• Example: Purchasing computers for an office.
• Process;
1. Define the problem.
2. Identify the decision criteria.
3. Allocate weights to the criteria.
4. Develop the alternatives.
5. Evaluate the alternatives.
6. Select the best alternative.
 Negotiation
• Bargaining process between two parties.
• It is basically a discussion aimed at reaching an
agreement.
• Generally managers are involved in
negotiation at the time of hiring an employee
• Dealing with banks while obtaining loans etc.
 Social net working
• Creating a group of associates and keeping it
active through regular communication for
mutual benefit.
 Resource utilization
• Using in effective manner the proportion of
the available resources.
– Time
– Materials
– Humans
– Etc.
 Self appraisal
• It is an act of judging oneself as compared to others.
– Knowledge
– Skills
– Work experience

Equality results in satisfaction

 Team working
• The process of working collaboratively with
a group of people in order to achieve a goal.
 Effective communication
• A two way information sharing process which
involves one party sending a message that is
easily understood by the receiving party.
Experiential learning through:
 Experiential learning through:
• Work observation/job shadowing
• Internship/practicum
• Apprenticeship
• Cooperative education
• Work study plan
 Experiential learning through:
• Job Shadowing
– 1 day or less

– Student watches worker(s)

– Develops awareness of:

• Work
• Variety of jobs
• Work environment
 Experiential learning through:
• Internship
– Students:
• observe and participate in daily operations
• develop direct contact with job personnel
• ask questions about particular careers
• perform certain job tasks
– Internships may be paid or unpaid.
– Work experience is directly
related to the student’s
career pathway.
 Experiential learning through:
• Apprenticeship
– This type of program typically occurs outside of a
university setting.
– It is run by a business
– Incorporates both class room instructions and
hands-on learning.
– The apprenticeship is a common method of
utilizing a skilled craftsman/experienced person to
train a new employee.
 Experiential learning through:
• Co-Op (cooperative education)
– Co-Op is a paid program for students where the
student spends time working in the field, typically for
a semester or more.
– Co-ops are generally full – time and paid positions.
– The work done in the field is coordinated with
classroom instructions.
– Northeastern University - Boston - USA students
participate in Co-Op each year and when they
graduate they have work experience in their resumes.
 Experiential learning through:
• Work study Plan
– The work-study program is designed to provide
on-campus work experience for full-time students
who require assistance in covering their
education-related costs.
– In this model the student obtains a paid job in
his/her field, but instruction is not directly
supervised by the school and job duties are not
necessarily tied to curriculum.
 Experiential learning through:
• Consultancy Project
– A team of four to five students work as
consultants to the sponsoring company supported
by a faculty advisor and industry experts.
– Stay in close liaison with company representative
as well as faculty advisor
– The students usually complete this project along-
with their other coursework while they are on
campus, with the exception of necessary field
visits & client meetings
 Experiential learning through:
• Consultancy Project
– Students may help in:
• Marketing & Sales Strategy
• Market Opportunity Assessment
• New Product Launch & Market Entry Strategy
• Revenue Optimization Strategies
• Growth Strategy
• Operational Efficiency/Improvement
• Organizational Change Management
• Financial Planning/Modeling etc.
 Experiential learning through:
• Consultancy Project
– As students strengthen their consulting and
project management skills, they also learn to
successfully navigate new business environments
and cultures - a prerequisite for success in a
globalized economy.

– Students to learn from and apply their business

skills to real world situations in areas relevant to
business school courses and individual career
interests.
 Benefits for students/employees
• Provides opportunities to apply classroom learning to
workplace experiences.
• It increases technical skills through their application
in authentic (real) tasks (tacit knowledge).
• Allows observation of work ethics of workplace
professionals.
• Establishes professional contacts for future
employment (socialization).
• Learning by observing and doing – Kolb’s view
Benefits for employers/businesses
• Opportunity to address skills gap.
• Enhanced corporate image.
• It encourages employers to get involved in
curriculum development.
• Helps in R&D by getting new ideas from fresh
thinkers.
• Provides potential skilled and motivated workers.
 Benefits for universities
• It helps in expanding curriculum and learning
facilities.
• Provides access to new and emerging techniques and
technology.
• Makes education more relevant and valuable for
students.