Lecture 3.1 and 3.2 Relational Algebra

Department of Computer Science and Engineering (CSE)
Database
Management
System
Course Outcome Will be covered in

CO Title Level this lecture
Number
CO1 To perceive the significance and Remember

implementation of a commercial

relational database system (Oracle)
by writing SQL using the system.
CO2 To understand the relational database Understand
theory, and be able to write

relational algebra expressions for
queries
CO3 To identify the basic issues of Analysis and
transaction processing and application
concurrency control and find out its
solutions.
2
University Institute of Engineering (UIE)
Department
Department
of Computer
of Computer
Science
Scienceand
andEngineering
Engineering (CSE)
(CSE)
Contents of the Syllabus
UNIT-I [10h]
Overview of Databases: Database concepts, DBMS, Data Base System Architecture (Three
Level ANSI-SPARC Architecture), Advantages and Disadvantages of DBMS, Data Independence,
DBA and Responsibilities of DBA, Relational Data Structure, Keys, Relations, Attributes, Schema and
Instances, Referential integrity, Entity integrity.
Data Models: Relational Model, Network Model, Hierarchical Model, ER Model: Design,
issues, Mapping constraints, ER diagram, Comparison of Models.
Relational Algebra & Relational Calculus: Introduction, Syntax, Semantics, Additional

operators, Grouping and Ungrouping, Relational comparisons, Tuple Calculus, Domain Calculus,
Calculus Vs Algebra, Computational capabilities.
UNIT-II [10h]
Functional dependencies and Normalization: Functional dependencies, Decomposition, Full
Functional Dependency (FFD), Transitive Dependency (TD), Join Dependency (JD), Multi-valued
Dependency (MVD), Normal Forms (1NF, 2NF, 3NF, BCNF), De-normalization.
Database Security: Introduction, Threats, Counter Measures.
Control Structures: Introduction to conditional control, Iterative control and sequential control
statements, Cursors, Views.
3
Department
Department
of Computer
of Computer
Science
Scienceand
andEngineering
Engineering (CSE)
(CSE)
Contents of the Syllabus
UNIT-III
[10h]
Package, Procedures and Triggers: Parts of procedures, Parameter modes, Advantages of
procedures, Syntax for creating triggers, Types of triggers, package specification and package body,
developing a package, Bodiless package, Advantages of packages.
Transaction Management and Concurrency Control: Introduction to Transaction Processing,
Properties of Transactions, Serializability and Recoverability, Need for Concurrency Control, Locking
Techniques, Time Stamping Methods, Optimistic Techniques and Granularity of Data items.
Database Recovery of database: Introduction, Need for Recovery, Types of errors,

Recovery Techniques.
4
Chapter 1.3
(Relational Algebra & Relational Calculus)
Relational Algebra & Relational Calculus: Introduction, Syntax, Semantics, Additional

operators, Grouping and Ungrouping, Relational comparisons, Tuple Calculus, Domain
Calculus, Calculus vs Algebra, Computational capabilities.
University Institute of Engineering (UIE) 5

Learning Objective
• To study relational algebra concepts,
selection ,projection ,relational calculus which helps in
understanding queries
• Fundamentals operations on Relational Algebra
• Tuple and Domain Relational Calculus

Learning Outcome
• Apply relational database theory, and be able to write
relational algebra expressions for queries
• Utilize the knowledge of basics of SQL and construct
queries using SQL
• Understanding relational algebra operators including
extended operators

Introduction
• Relational algebra
– Basic set of operations for the relational model
– More operational (procedural), very useful for representing
execution plans.
• Relational calculus
– Higher-level declarative language for specifying relational queries
– Lets users describe what they want, rather than how to compute
it: Non-operational, declarative.

Relational Algebra
• Relational algebra operations work on one or more relations to define
another relation without changing the original relations.
• Both operands and results are relations, so output from one

operation can become input to another operation.
• Allows expressions to be nested, just as in arithmetic. This property is

called closure.
• Five basic operations in relational algebra: Selection, Projection,

Cartesian product, Union and Set Difference.
• These perform most of the data retrieval operations needed.
• Also have Join, Intersection, and Division operations, which can be

expressed in terms of 5 basic operations.

Relational Algebra
• Basic operations:
– Selection (  ) Selects a subset of rows from relation.
– Projection ( 
) Deletes unwanted columns from relation.
– Cross-product ( 
) Allows us to combine two relations.
– Set-difference (
– Union (

) Tuples in reln. 1, but not in reln. 2.
 ) Tuples in reln. 1 and in reln. 2.
• Additional operations:
– Intersection, join, division, renaming: Not essential, but (very!) useful.

Relational Algebra Operations

Relational Algebra Operations

Selection (or Restriction)

• predicate (R)
– Works on a single relation R and defines a relation that contains only
those tuples (rows) of R that satisfy the specified condition (predicate).
– Selects rows that satisfy selection condition.
– No duplicates in result!
– Schema of result identical to schema of input relation.
– Selection is distributive over binary operators
– Selection is commutative
13
Example - Selection Restriction)

• List all staff with a salary greater than £10,000.
salary > 10000 (Staff)

Projection
• col1, . . . , coln(R)
– Works on a single relation R and defines a relation that contains a
vertical subset of R, extracting the values of specified attributes and
eliminating duplicates.
– Deletes attributes that are not in projection list.
– Schema of result contains exactly the fields in the projection list,
with the same names that they had in the input relation.
– Projection operator has to eliminate duplicates!
Note: real systems typically don’t do duplicate elimination unless the

user explicitly asks for it (by DISTINCT). Why not?

Example - Projection
• Produce a list of salaries for all staff, showing only staffNo, fName,
lName, and salary details.
staffNo, fName, lName, salary(Staff)

Union
• RS
– Union of two relations R and S defines a relation that contains all the
tuples of R, or S, or both R and S,
duplicate tuples being eliminated.
– R and S must be union-compatible.
• If R and S have I and J tuples, respectively, union is obtained by

concatenating them into one relation with a maximum of (I + J) tuples.

Example - UNION
• List all cities where there is either a branch office or a property for rent.
city(Branch)  city(PropertyForRent)

Set Difference
• R–S
– Defines a relation consisting of the tuples that are in relation R,
but not in S.

Example - Set Difference

• List all cities where there is a branch office but no properties for rent.
city(Branch) – city(PropertyForRent)

Intersection
• RS
– Defines a relation consisting of the set of all tuples that are in both R
and S.
• Expressed using basic operations:

R  S = R – (R – S)

Example - Intersection
• List all cities where there is both a branch office and at least one
property for rent.
city(Branch)  city(PropertyForRent)

Cartesian product
• RXS
– Defines a relation that is the concatenation of every tuple of
relation “R with every tuple of relation S”

Example - Cartesian product

• List the names and comments of all clients who have viewed a property for
rent.
(clientNo, fName, lName(Client)) X (clientNo, propertyNo, comment (Viewing))
24
Pearson Education © 2009
Example - Cartesian product and

Selection
• Use selection operation to extract those tuples where Client.clientNo =
Viewing.clientNo.
sClient.clientNo = Viewing.clientNo((ÕclientNo, fName, lName(Client))  (ÕclientNo, propertyNo,
comment(Viewing)))
 Cartesian product and Selection can be reduced to a single operation called a Join.
25
Join Operations
• JOINs can be used to combine tables
• Join is a derivative of Cartesian product.
• Equivalent to performing a Selection, using join predicate as selection

formula, over Cartesian product of the two operand relations.
• One of the most difficult operations to implement efficiently in an

RDBMS and one reason why RDBMSs have intrinsic performance
problems.
26
Join Operations
• Various forms of join operation
– JOIN (Inner Join) : Return rows when there is at least one match
in both tables
– LEFT JOIN(Left Outer Join): Return all rows from the left
table, even if there are no matches in the right table
– RIGHT JOIN(Right Outer Join): Return all rows from the right
table, even if there are no matches in the left table
– FULL JOIN: Return rows when there is a match in one of the
tables
27
SQL INNER JOIN Syntax

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name1 INNER JOIN table_name2
ON
table_name1.column_name=table_name2.column_name
INNER JOIN is the same as JOIN

The word "INNER" is optional

Example - Inner Join

*

Left Join

Example - Left Join

Right Join

Example – Right Join

Full Join

Example – Full Join

FAQ
1. How does Tuple-oriented relational calculus differ from domain-
oriented relational calculus?
2. Define Relational Algebra and Relational Calculus
3. What is degree of a Relation?
4. What is a Relation Schema and a Relation?
5. List various Operators used in Relational Algebra and Calculus
6. Solve the given by relational algebra. The Relations are :
• Emp(empno,ename,sal,job,comm,deptno)
• Dept (deptno,dname,dloc)
• Create a query to list unique jobs that are in deptno 30 and include the
location of department 30 in output

References
OTHER REFRENCES
• https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/~tozsu/courses/CS348/notes/4b-calculus-handout-notes.pdf
• http://www.ccs.neu.edu/home/kathleen/classes/cs3200/4-RAAndRC.pdf
• https://www2.cs.sfu.ca/CourseCentral/354/louie/Chap3_practice.pdf
• http://www.nyu.edu/classes/jcf/CSCI-GA.2433-001_fa11/slides/session5/RelationalAlgebra-
RelationalCalculus-SQL.pdf
• https://blog.inf.ed.ac.uk/da15/files/2015/01/inf1-da-15-t3.pdf
• DatabaseSystemConceptsbySudarshan,Korth(McGraw-HillEducation)
• FundamentalsofDatabaseSystemByElmasari&Navathe-PearsonEducation
• http://ecomputernotes.com/database-system/rdbms
• https://www.tutorialspoint.com/sql/sql-rdbms-concepts.htm
• https://www.studytonight.com/dbms/rdbms-concept
SUGGESTED BOOK REFERENCES
• Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe,“Fundamentals of Database System”, The
Benjamin / Cummings Publishing Co.
• Korth and Silberschatz Abraham, “Database SystemConcepts”, McGraw Hall.
• Pratt,”DBMS”, Cengage Learning.

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Department of Computer Science and Engineering (CSE)

Course Outcome Will be covered in

CO1 To perceive the significance and Remember

Relational Algebra & Relational Calculus: Introduction, Syntax, Semantics, Additional

Database Recovery of database: Introduction, Need for Recovery, Types of errors,

(Relational Algebra & Relational Calculus)

Relational Algebra & Relational Calculus: Introduction, Syntax, Semantics, Additional

University Institute of Engineering (UIE) 5

University Institute of Engineering (UIE)

University Institute of Engineering (UIE)

University Institute of Engineering (UIE)

• Both operands and results are relations, so output from one

• Allows expressions to be nested, just as in arithmetic. This property is

• Five basic operations in relational algebra: Selection, Projection,

• These perform most of the data retrieval operations needed.

• Also have Join, Intersection, and Division operations, which can be

University Institute of Engineering (UIE)

University Institute of Engineering (UIE)

Relational Algebra Operations

University Institute of Engineering (UIE)

Relational Algebra Operations

University Institute of Engineering (UIE)

Selection (or Restriction)

Example - Selection Restriction)

salary > 10000 (Staff)

University Institute of Engineering (UIE)

Note: real systems typically don’t do duplicate elimination unless the

University Institute of Engineering (UIE)

staffNo, fName, lName, salary(Staff)

University Institute of Engineering (UIE)

• If R and S have I and J tuples, respectively, union is obtained by

University Institute of Engineering (UIE)

University Institute of Engineering (UIE)

University Institute of Engineering (UIE)

Example - Set Difference

University Institute of Engineering (UIE)

• Expressed using basic operations:

University Institute of Engineering (UIE)

University Institute of Engineering (UIE)

University Institute of Engineering (UIE)

Example - Cartesian product

Example - Cartesian product and

• Join is a derivative of Cartesian product.

• Equivalent to performing a Selection, using join predicate as selection

• One of the most difficult operations to implement efficiently in an

SQL INNER JOIN Syntax

INNER JOIN is the same as JOIN

University Institute of Engineering (UIE)

Example - Inner Join

University Institute of Engineering (UIE)

University Institute of Engineering (UIE)

Example - Left Join

University Institute of Engineering (UIE)

University Institute of Engineering (UIE)

Example – Right Join

University Institute of Engineering (UIE)

University Institute of Engineering (UIE)

Example – Full Join

University Institute of Engineering (UIE)