LESSON 2.

2
FOUR BASIC
CONCEPTS
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES”
1. Define what a set and its basic terminologies.
2. Differentiate two ways in describing sets.
3. Perform basic operations on set.
4. Define what a relation and a function is.
5. Translate relation and function into a diagram.
6. Name and apply the different properties of a relation and
function.
7. Identify the domain and range in a relation and function.
8. Evaluate a function.
9. Define and perform a binary operation.
1. SETS AND
SUBSETS
A. THE LANGUAGE OF SETS
 Use of the word “set” as a formal
mathematical term was introduced in 1879
by Georg Cantor. For most mathematical
purposes we can think of a set intuitively,
as Cantor did, simply as a collection of
elements.
 So, by definition:

A set is a collection of well-defined objects.

EXAMPLE:

A set of counting numbers from 1

to 10.
A set of an English alphabet from
a to e.
A set of even numbers
A set of an integers
Note: A set is denoted with braces
or curly brackets { } and label or
name the set by a capital letter
such as A, B, C,…etc.
a. A set of counting numbers from 1 to 5.
A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }
b. A set of English alphabet from a to d.
B = { a, b, c, d }
c. A set of all even positive integers.
C = { 2, 4, 6, 8, … }
d. A set of an integers.
D = { …, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}
Now, if S is a set, the notation x ϵ
S means that x is an element of S.
The notation x ∉ S means that x is
not an element of S.
ELEMENT OF A SET

Each member of the set is

called an element and the ϵ
notation means that an item
belongs to a set.
EXAMPLE:
Say A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }
1 ϵ A; 3 ϵ A; 5 ϵ A
Is 6 is an element of set A? Since in a
given set A above, we could not see six as
an element of set A, thus we could say that;
6 is not an element of set A or
6∉A
Note: Each element is a
set should be separated
by comma.
TERMINOLOGIES OF SETS
1. Unit Set
Unit set is a set that contains only one element.
Illustration:
A = { 1 }; B = { c }; C = { banana }
2. Empty set or Null set; ∅
Empty or null set is a set that has no element.
Illustration:
A={}
A set of seven yellow carabaos
3. Finite set
A finite set is a set that the elements in a given set is
countable.
Illustration:
A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 }
B = { a, b, c, d }
4. Infinite set
An infinite set is a set that elements in a given set has
no end or not
countable.
Illustration:
A set of counting numbers
A = { …-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, … }
5. Cardinal Number; n
Cardinal number are numbers that used to measure the
number of elements in a given set. It is just similar in
counting the total number of element in a set.
Illustration:
A = { 2, 4, 6, 8 } n = 4
B = { a, c, e } n = 3
6. Equal set
Two sets, say A and B, are said to be equal if and only
if they have equal number of cardinality and the element/s
are identical. There is a 1 -1 correspondence.
Illustration:
A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} B = { 3, 5, 2, 4, 1}
7. Equivalent set
Two sets, say A and B, are said to be equivalent
if and only if they have the exact number of
element. There is a 1 – 1 correspondence.
Illustration:
A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 } B = { a, b, c, d, e }
8. Universal set
The universal set U is the set of all elements
under discussion.
Illustration:
A set of an English alphabet
U = {a, b, c, d, …, z}
9. Joint Sets
Two sets, say A and B, are said to be joint sets
if and only if they have common element/s.
A = { 1, 2, 3} B = { 2, 4, 6 }
Here, sets A and B are joint set since they have
common element such as 2.
10. Disjoint Sets
Two sets, say A and B, are said to be disjoint if
and only if they are mutually exclusive or if they
don’t have common element/s.
A = { 1, 2, 3} B = { 4, 6, 8 }
B. TWO WAYS OF DESCRIBING A SET
1. Roster or Tabular Method
It is done by listing or tabulating the
elements of the set.
Illustration:
a. A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }
A = {x | x is a counting number from 1
to 5}
A = { x | x  N, x < 6}
2. Rule or Set-builder Method
It is done by stating or describing the
common characteristics of the elements of
the set. We use the notation A = { x / x … }
Illustration:
b. B = { a, b, c, d, …, z }
B = {x | x ∈ English alphabet}
B = { x | x is an English alphabet}
C. SUBSETS
 A subset, A ⊆ B, means that every element of A
is also an element of B.
 If x ϵ A, then x ϵ B.

 In particular, every set is a subset of itself, A ⊆

A.
 A subset is called a proper subset, A is a proper
subset of B, if A ⊂ B and there is at least one
element of B that is not in A:
 If x ⊂ A, then x ⊂ B and there is an element b
such that b ϵ B and b ∉ A.
NOTE: The empty set. or
{} has no elements and is
a subset of every set for
every set A, A ⊂ A.
The number of subsets of a
given set is given by , where n
is the number of elements of
the given set.
 Illustration:

How many subsets are there in a set

A = {1, 2, 3 }? List down all the subsets of set A.
Number of subsets = = 8 subsets
 With one element

{1};{2};{3}
 With two elements

{ 1, 2 } ; { 1, 3 }; { 2, 3 }
 With three elements

{ 1, 2, 3 }
 With no elements

{}
D. ORDERED PAIR
 Given elements a and b, the symbol (a, b)
denotes the ordered pair consisting of a and b
together with the specification that “a” is the first
element of the pair and “b” is the second
element. Two ordered pairs (a,b) and (c,d) are
equal if a = c and b = d. Symbolically;

(a, b) = (c, d) means that a = c and b = d

 Illustration:

a) If (a, b) = (3, 2), what would be the value of a and

b.
Here, by definition that two ordered pairs (a,b)
and (c, d) are equal if a = c and b = d.
Hence, a = 3 and b = 2.
b) Find x and y if (4x + 3, y) = (3x + 5, – 2).
Solution:
Since (4x + 3, y) = (3x + 5, – 2), so
4x + 3 = 3x + 5
Solving for x, we got x = 2 and obviously y = – 2.
4x + 3 = 3x + 5
4x – 3x = 5 – 3
X=2
E. OPERATION ON SETS

Sets can be combined in a

number of different ways to
produce another set. Here are
the basic operations on sets.
1. Union of Sets
The union of sets A and B, denoted by A
∪ B , is the set defined as:
A ∪ B = { x | x ϵ A or x ϵ B }
Example 1: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5} ,
then
A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} .
Example 2: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2,
4, 5} , then
A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} .
Note that
elements are not
repeated in a set.
2. Intersection of Sets
The intersection of sets A and B, denoted
by A ∩ B , is the set defined as :
A ∩ B = { x | x ∈ A and x ∈ B }
Example 1: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2,
4, 5}
then A ∩ B = {1, 2} .
Example 2: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5}
then A ∩ B = ∅
3. Difference of Sets
The difference of sets A from B , denoted by A
- B , is the set defined as
A - B = { x | x ∈ A and x ∉ B }
Example 1: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 4, 5}
then A - B = {3} .
Example 2: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5} ,
then A - B = {1, 2, 3} .
Example 3: If A = {a, b, c, d } and B = {a, c, e } ,
then A - B = {b, d } .
Note
that in general A -
B≠B-A
4. Complement of Set
For a set A, the difference U - A , where
U is the universe, is called the complement
of A and it is denoted by . Thus is the set of
everything that is not in A.
Example: Let U = { a, e, i, o, u } and A =
{ a, e }
then = { i, o u }
5. Cartesian Product
Given sets A and B, the Cartesian
product of A and B, denoted by A x B and
read as “A cross B”, is the set of all
ordered pair (a,b) where a is in A and b is
in B. Symbolically:
A x B = {(a, b) | a ∈ A and b ∈ B}
Note that A x B is not equal to B x A.
Illustration:
If A = { 1, 2} and B = {a, b}, what is A x B?
A x B = {(1,a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, b)}. How many
elements in a A x B?
Example 1: Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {a, b}. Then
A x B = {(1, a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, b), (3, a), (3, b)} .
Example 2: For the same A and B as in Example 1,
B x A = {(a, 1), (a, 2), (a, 3), (b, 1), (b, 2), (b, 3)} .
VENN DIAGRAM
 A Venn diagram is an illustration of the
relationships between and among sets, groups of
objects that share something in common.
Usually, Venn diagrams are used to depict set
intersections (denoted by an upside-down letter
U). This type of diagram is used in scientific and
engineering presentations, in theoretical
mathematics, in computer applications, and in
statistics.
VENN DIAGRAM ON SETS OPERATION
A. Union of Sets
B. Intersection of Sets
C. Difference of Sets
D. Complement
ACTIVITY
II. FUNCTIONS
AND RELATIONS
 A. THE LANGUAGE OF RELATIONS
AND FUNCTIONS
 How are we going to relate the word relation in
Mathematics?
 The objects of mathematics may be related in
various ways. A set “A” may be said to be
related to a set “B” if A is a subset of B, or if A
is not a subset of B, or if A and B have at least
one element in common. A number x may be
said to be related to a number y if x < y, or if x
is a factor of y, or if x2 + y2 = 1.
Let A = {1,2,3} and B = {2, 3, 4} and let us say that an
element x in A is related to an element y in B if and only
if, x is less than y and let us use the notation x R y as
translated mathematical term for the sentence “x is
related to y. Then, it follows that:
1 R 2 since 1 < 2
1 R 3 since 1 < 3
1 R 4 since 1 < 4
2 R 3 since 2 < 3
2 R 4 since 2 < 4
3 R 4 since 3 < 4.
Now, can we say that 1 R 1? Is 3 R 2?
Recall the Cartesian product.
What are the elements of A x B?
It is clearly stated A x B = { (1,2),
(1,3), (1,4), (2,2), (2,3), (2,4),
(3,2), (3,3), (3,4)}. Here, the
elements of some ordered pairs in
A x B are related, whereas the
element of other ordered pairs are
not.
What are the elements (ordered
pair) in A x B, based on the
given conditions, that are
related? Perhaps your answer
would be:
{ (1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (2,3), (2,4),
(3,4)}
Observe that knowing which
ordered pairs lie in this set is
equivalent to knowing which
elements are related to which. The
relation can be therefore be
thought of the totality of ordered
pairs whose elements are related
by the given condition.
RELATION

1. A relation from set X to Y is the

set of ordered pairs of real numbers
(x, y) such that to each element x
of the set X there corresponds at
least one element of the set Y.
Let A and B be sets, A relation R
from A to B is a subset of A x B.
Given an ordered pair (x, y) in A x B,
x is related to y by R, written x R y,
if, and only if, (x, y) is in R. The set A
is called the domain of R and the set
B is called its co-domain.
Notation:

The notation for a relation R may be

written symbolically as follows:
x R y meaning (x, y) ∈ R.
The notation x R y means that x is not
related to y by R;
x R y meaning (x, y) ∉ R.
Example:

1. Given a set of an ordered pairs:

{(0, -5), (1, -4), (2, -3), (3, -2), (4, -1),
(5, 0)}

The domain are x = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

The co-domain are y = {-5, -4, -3, -2, -1,
0}
2. Let A = {1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3} and define a
relation R from A to B as follows: Given any (x, y)
A x B,
(x, y) R means that is an integer.
a. State explicitly which ordered pairs are in A x
B and which are in R.
b. Is 1 R 3? Is 2 R 3? Is 2 R 2?

c. What are the domain and co-domain of R?

Solution:
a. A x B = {(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (2,1), (2,2),(2,3). To determine
explicitly the composition of R, examine each ordered pair in A
x B to see whether its element satisfy the defining condition for
R.
(1,1) ∈ R because = = 0, which is an integer.
(1, 2) ∉ R because = , which is not an integer.
(1, 3) ∈ R because = = -1. which is an integer.
(2, 1) ∉ R because = , which is not an integer.
(2, 2) ∈ R because = = 0, which is an integer
(2, 3) ∉ R because = , which is not an integer.
Thus, R = {(1,1), (1,3), (2,2)}
b. Yes! 1 R 3 because (1,3) ∈ R
No! 2 R 3 because (2,3) ∉ R.
Yes! 2 R 2 because (2,2) ∈ R.
c. The domain of R is {1,2} and the
co-domain is {1,2,3}
 B. ARROW DIAGRAM OF A RELATION
 Suppose R is a relation from a set A to a set B. The arrow
diagram for R is obtained as follows:
1. Represent the elements of A as a points in one region and
the elements of B as points in another region.
2. For each x in A and y in B, draw an arrow from x to y, and
only if, x is related to y by R. Symbolically:
Draw an arrow from x to y
If and only if, x R y
If and only if, (x, y) ∈ R.
 Example:
1. Given a relation {(1, 2),(0, 1),(3, 4),(2, 1),(0, −2)}.
Illustrate the given relation into an arrow diagram.

0 -2
1 1
2 2
3 4
2. What is the domain and co-
domain of an example 1?
The domain are as follows: {0, 1,
2, 3}
The co-domain are as follows: {-
2, 1, 2, 4}
3. Let A = {1,2,3} and b = {1,3,5}
and define relations S and T from A
to B as follows:
For all (x, y) ∈ A x B, (x,y) ∈ S
means that x < y, i.e., S is a “less
than” relation.
T = {(2,1), (2,5)}
Draw arrow diagrams for S and T.
Solution:
A x B = {(1,1), (1,3), (1,5), (2,1), (2,3), (2,5), (3,1), (3,3),
(3,5)}. It is given by x < y so S = {(1,3), (1,5), (2,3), (2,5),
(3,5)}
C. PROPERTIES OF A RELATION

When a relation R is defined

from a set A into the same set
A, the three properties are very
useful such as reflexive,
symmetric and the transitive.
A. REFLEXIVE
 A relation R on A is said to be reflexive if every
element of A is related to itself. In notation, a R a
for all a ∈ A.
 Examples of reflexive relations include:

_ "is equal to" (equality)

_ "is a subset of" (set inclusion)
_ "is less than or equal to" and "is greater than
or equal to" (inequality)
_ "divides" (divisibility).
An example of a non reflexive
relation is the relation "is the
father of" on a set of people
since no person is the father of
themself.
 When looking at an arrow diagram, a relation is reflexive
if every element of A has an arrow pointing to itself. For
example, the relation in a given figure below is a
reflexive relation.
B. SYMMETRIC
 A relation R on A is symmetric if given a R b then b R a.
 For example, "is married to" is a symmetric relation,
while, "is less than" is not. The relation "is the sister of"
is not symmetric on a set that contains a brother and
sister but would be symmetric on a set of females. The
arrow diagram of a symmetric relation has the property
that whenever there is a directed arrow from a to b, there
is also a directed arrow from b to a.
C. TRANSITIVE
 A relation R on A is transitive if given a R b and
b R c then a R c.
 Examples of reflexive relations include:

_ "is equal to" (equality)

_ "is a subset of" (set inclusion)
_ "is less than or equal to" and "is greater than or
equal to" (inequality)
_ "divides" (divisibility).
 On the other hand, "is the mother of" is not a transitive
relation, because if Maria is the mother of Josefa, and
Josefa is the mother of Juana, then Maria is not the
mother of Juana.
 The arrow diagram of a transitive relation has the
property that whenever there are directed arrows from a
to b and from b to c then there is also a directed arrow
from a to c:
 A relation that is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive
is called an equivalence relation on A.
 Examples of equivalence relations include:

_ The equality ("=") relation between real numbers

or sets.
_ The relation "is similar to" on the set of all
triangles.
_ The relation "has the same birthday as" on the set
of all human beings.
 On the other hand, the relation " ⊆ " is not an
equivalence relation on the set of all subsets of a set
A since this relation is not symmetric.
FUNCTION
 A function is a relation in which every input is
paired with exactly one output.
 A function from set X to Y is the set of ordered
pairs of real numbers (x, y) in which no two
distinct ordered pairs have the same first
component. Similar to a relation, the values of x
is called the domain of the function and the set
of all resulting value of y is called the range or
co-domain of the function.
 A function F from a set A to a set B is a relation
with the domain A and co-domain B that satisfies
the following two properties:
1. For every element x in A, there is an element y
in B such that (x, y) F.
2. For all elements x in A and y and z in B,

if (x, y) F and (x, z) F, then y = z.

Properties (1) and (2) can be stated
less formally as follows: A relation F
from A to B is a function if, and only
if:
1. Every element of A is the first
element of an ordered pair of F.
2. No two distinct ordered pairs in F
have the same first element.
Is a function a relation? Focus on the
x-coordinates, when given a relation.
If the set of ordered pairs have
different x-coordinates, it is a
function.
If the set of ordered pairs have same
x-coordinates, it is NOT a function
but it could be said a relation.
Note:

a) Y-coordinates have no
bearing in determining
functions
b) Function is a relation but
relation could not be said as
function.
Example 1: Determine if the
following is a function or not a
function.
1. {(0, -5), (1, -4), (2, -3), (3, -2), (4, -
1), (5, 0)}
2. {(-1, -7), (1, 0), (2, -3), (0, -8), (0, 5),
(-2, -1)}
3. 2x + 3y – 1 = 0
4. x2 + y2 = 1
5. y2 = x + 1
 Example 2. Which of the following mapping represent a
function?
1.

3 1
0 2
1 3
2.

1 1
2 2
3 3
0
FUNCTION NOTATION

The symbol f(x) means function

of x and it is read as “f of x.”
Thus, the equation y = 2x + 1
could be written in a form of f(x)
= 2x + 1 meaning y = f(x). It can
be stated that y is a function of x.
 Let us say we have a function in a form of f(x) =
3x – 1. If we replace x = 1, this could be written
as f(1) = 3(1) – 1. The notation f(1) only means
that we substitute the value of x = 1 resulting the
function value. Thus
f(x) = 3x – 1; let x = 1
f(1) = 3(1) – 1 = 3 – 1 = 2.
 Another illustration is given a function g(x) = x2
– 3 and let x = -2, then g(-2) = (-2)2 – 3 = 1
 OPERATIONS ON FUNCTIONS
 The following are definitions on the operations on functions.
a. The sum or difference of f and g, denoted by f ± g is the
function defined by (f ± g)(x) = f(x) ± g(x).
b. The product of f and g, denoted by f · g is the function
defined by (f·g)(x) = f(x)·g(x).
c. The quotient of f and g denoted by f/g is the function defined
by f(x)/g(x), where g(x) is not equal to zero.
d. The composite function of f and g denoted by f ο g is the
function defined by (f ο g)(x) = f(g(x)). Similarly, the composite
function of g by f, denoted by g ο f, is the function defined by
( g ο f)(x) = g(f(x)).
Examples:

1. If f(x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = 3x + 2,

what is (f+g)(x)?
Solution:
(f+g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)
= (2x + 1) + (3x + 2)
= 2x + 3x + 1 + 2
= 5x + 3
2. What is (f • g)(x) if f(x) = 2x +
1 and g(x) = 3x + 2?
Solution:
(f • g)(x) = f(x) • g(x)
= (2x + 1)(3x + 2)
= 6x2 + 7x + 2
3.What is () (x) if f(x) = 2a + 6b and
g(x) = a + 3b?

Solution:
() (x) = = = = 2
4. If f(x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = 3x + 2, what is
(g ∘ f)(x)?
Solution:
(g ∘ f)(x) = g(f(x)) = g(2x + 1) = 3(2x + 1) +
2 = 6x + 3 + 2 = 6x + 5

𝐑 = {(𝐱, 𝐲)|𝐲 = 𝐱 + ; 𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞 𝐱, 𝐲 ∈ 𝐍, 𝐱 < 𝟔}

 (f ∘ g)(x)?
III. BINARY
OPERATION
 A binary operation on a set G, then, is simply a
method (or formula) by which the members of
an ordered pair from G combine to yield a new
member of G. This condition is called closure.
 The most familiar binary operations are
ordinary addition, subtraction, and multiplication
of integers. Division of integers is not a binary
operation on the integers because an integer
divided by an integer need not be an integer.
 In mathematics, a binary
operation on a set is a calculation
that combines two elements of the
set (called operands) to produce
another element of the set.
DEFINITION OF BINARY OPERATIONS
Let G be a non-empty set. An
operation * on G is said to be a binary
operation on G if for every pair of
elements, a, b is in G that is a,b ∈ G;
the product a * b ∈ G.
Note: For each (a,b) ∈G, we assign
an element a * b of G.
Illustrative examples:
Tell whether the following is a binary
operation or not.
1. G ∈ Z define a * b = a + b (usual
addition on Z)
Solution:

Let a ∈ Z and b ∈ Z. If we add a and b,

then the sum a + b ∈ Z. Hence a * b = a
+ b is a binary operation.
2. G ∈ Z define a * b = ab (usual
multiplication on Z)
Solution:
Let a, b ∈ Z. Then the product of
a and b, that is ab ∈ Z. Hence a *
b = ab is a binary operation.
3. G ∈ R+ defined by a * b
= a + 17b
Solution:
Let a, b ∈ R+. If we take
the sum of a + 17b ∈ R+.
Hence it is a binary
operation.
4. G ∈ Z+, defined * by a * b =
a – b for all set a, b ∈ Z+.
Solution:

If a > b = a – b > 0 ∈ Z+
If a < b = a – b < 0 ∈ Z+
Therefore, * is NOT a binary
operation
5. G ∈ R defined by a * b = ab
To be able to determine if the above
statement is a binary operation or not, we
need to have a counter example.
If a = 0 and b = 0, then ab does not exist,
hence it is not an element of R
If a = -4 and b = ½, then ab would be an
element of a complex number C, so ab ∈ R.
6. G ∈ Z \{-1} , defined * by a * b = a + b
+ ab for all set a, b ∈ Z.
 Solution
 Let a, b ∈ Z except -1, then a > -1 and b >
-1 and a < -1 and b < -1. If a * b = a + b +
ab, it follows that a * b = a + b + ab ∈ Z
since in both case such as a and b > -1 and
a and b < -1, the result would be Z, hence
* is a binary operation.
CLOSED

A set is “closed” under

operation if the operation
assigns to every ordered pair
of elements from the set an
element of the set.
 Illustrativeexamples:
1. Is S = { ±1, ±3, ±5, ±7, …} is closed
under usual addition?
 Solution:
 By giving a counter example, S = { ±1,
±3, ±5, ±7, …} is NOT closed under usual
addition. Why? Let us say we are going to
a 1 and 3. The sum of 1 and 3 is 4 where 4
is not an element of S. Hence, it is not
closed.
2. Let + and • be usual binary operations of
addition and multiplication of Z and let H = { | n ∈
Z+}. Is H closed under addition? Under
multiplication?
 Solution:

 a. To be able to determine if H is closed under

addition, we need to have a counter-example. Let
us take two elements in Z, say 1 and 4. If we are
going to add this two numbers, the result would
be 5 and obviously, 5 ∉ or 5 is not a perfect
square. Hence, H is not closed under addition.
b. Let r ∈ H and s ∈ H. Using H x H ∈ (r, s)
= r • s. Since r ∈ H and s ∈ H, that means
there must be an integers n and m ∈ such
that r = and s = . So;

(r, s) = r • s = • =

and n, m ∈ . It follows that nm ∈ , then ∈

H. Hence, H is closed under multiplication.
 Example.
 Consider the binary operation ∗ on R
given by x ∗ y = x + y − 3.
(x ∗ y) ∗ z = (x + y − 3) ∗ z
(x + y − 3) + z − 3 = x + y + z − 6,
x ∗ (y ∗ z) = x ∗ (y + z − 3) = x + (y + z −
3) − 3 = x + y + z − 6.
 Therefore, ∗ is associative. Since x ∗ y =
x + y − 3 = y + x − 3 = y ∗ x, ∗ is
commutative.
 Example.
 Consider the binary operation * on R
given by a*b = ab/2. Show that a*b = b*c.
Solution:
 Let a*b = ab/2. We need to show that a*b
= b*a. In b*a = ba/2. But by commutative
properties under multiplication, that is ab
= ba, then it follows that b*a = ab/2.
Hence a*b = b*a
 Definition:
 Let * be a binary operation of a set S.
Then;
a. * is associative if for all a, b, c ∈ S,
(a*b)*c = a *(b*c)
b. * is commutative if for all a, b ∈ S, a*b =
b *a
c. An element e ∈ S is called a left identity
element if for all a ∈ S, we have e * a = a
d. An element e ∈ S is called a right
identity element if for all a ∈ S, we
have a * e = ae. An element e ∈ S is
called an identity element if for all
a ∈ S, we have a * e = ae and e * a
= a.
f. Let e be an identity element is S
and a ∈ S, then b is called an
inverse of the element “a” if a * b =
e and b * a = e.
Note that a * b = b * a = e or a *
= *a=e
If a ∈ S, then the inverse of “a” is
denoted by . Here -1 is not an
exponent of a.
Example:
Let S = as define * on S by a * b
= a + b – ab. Show the
associativity and the
commutativity of S in a binary
operation. Find also its identity
and inverse if any.
(a)Associativity
Let a, b, c ∈ . Then; (a * b) * c = a * (b * c)
For (a * b) * c
(a * b) * c = (a + b – ab) * c
= (a + b – ab) + c - (a + b – ab)c
= a + b + c – ab – ac – bc + abc
For a * (b * c)
a * (b * c) = a * (b + c – bc)
= a + (b + c – bc) – (a)(b + c – bc)
= a + b + c – bc – ab – ac + abc
 Hence * is associative on S ∈ .
(b) Commutative
a*b=b*a
a + b – ab = b + a – ba
a + b – ab = a + b – ab
Hence * is commutative on S ∈ .
(c) Identity
a*e=a e*a=a
a + e – ae = a e + a – ea = a
e – ae = a – a e – ea = a – a
e(1 – a) = 0 e(1 – a) = 0
e=0 e=0
hence, the identity exist except when a = 1.
(d) Inverse

a* =e *a=e
Example:
Let S = as define * on S by a * b
= + ab + . Is the operation *
associative? Commutative? What
is its identity? What is its inverse?
(a) Commutative
a*b=b*a
+ ab + = + ba +
+ ab + = + ab +
Hence, the operation * is
commutative.
(b) Associative
(a * b) * c = a * (b * c)
( + ab + ) * c = a * ( + bc + )
+ ( + ab + )(c) + ≠ + (a)( + bc + ) +

Hence, the operation * is not associative.

CAYLEY TABLE
 A (binary) operation on a finite set can be
represented by a table. This is a square grid with
one row and one column for each element in the
set. The grid is filled in so that the element in the
row belonging to x and the column belonging to
y is x*y.
 A binary operation on a finite set (a set with a
limited number of elements) is often displayed in
a table that demonstrates how the operation is
performed.
 Example: The table below is a table for a binary
operation on the set {a, b, c, d}

* a b C d
a a b C d
b b c D a
c c d A b
d d a B c

a. Is the * commutative?
b. Is the * associative?
c. What is its identity?
ACTIVITY