How do I know a wave is a wave?

"The precise formulation of the time space laws of [electromagnetic] fields was the
work of Maxwell (1870s). Imagine his feelings when the differential equations he had
formulated proved to him that the electromagnetic fields spread in the form of
polarized waves and with the speed of light! ” - Albert Einstein

1/20 Day 3: Reminders:

Questions? HW01 due today
Interference, Double-Slit HW02 assigned today
Polarization, Interferometers Problem-Solving Sessions on Tuesdays
Today:
“Classical” wave-view of light & its interaction with matter
• Pre-quantum
• Still useful in many situations.

HW01 due, beginning of class; HW02 assigned

Next week:
Special Relativity  Michelson-Morley experiment
Universal speed of light
Length contraction, time dilation

2
 Review: How to generate light?
E
Stationary charges 
constant E-field, no magnetic (B)-field +
(We don’t see charges glow in the dark)

Charges moving at a constant velocity  B

Constant current through wire creates a B-field
but B-field is constant. (We don’t see DC.) I

Accelerating charges 
changing E-field and changing B-field
(EM radiation  both E and B are oscillating) B
We talked briefly about Maxwell equations
E
 Electromagnetic Spectrum
Spectrum: All EM waves. Complete range of wavelengths.
Wavelength (λ) = Frequency (f) =
distance (x) until wave repeats # of times per second E-field at point changes
through complete cycle as wave passes
λ
Blue light

λ
Red light
λ

Cosmic
rays

SHORT LONG

4
 Electromagnetic waves carry energy
Emax=peak amplitude
Light shines
c on a black
tank full of
X water.
How much
E(x,t) = Emaxsin(ax-bt) energy is
absorbed?

Intensity = Power = energy/time ~ (Eavg)2

area area

~ (amplitude of wave)2 ~ Emax2

5
Light shines on three black barrels filled with water:

#1
X

#2
X

#3
X

(Use E1max = E2max > E3max)

Which barrel will heat up the fastest?
A) 2 > 1 > 3 B) 1 > 2 > 3 C) 1 = 2 > 3
D) 1 = 3 > 2 E) 2 > 1 = Intensity
3 = power/area ~ Emax2
Does not depend on frequency/color!
Classical waves: Intensity ~ Emax2
|Eave|2
X
vs.

|Eave|2

Classically:
Time average of the E-field squared: same… independent of frequency.

Intensity only depends on the E-field amplitude but not

on the color (or frequency) of the light!
 Goals for waves
• Superposition
• Interference
• Double-Slit Experiment
• Polarization
• Interferometers
 Wave or Particle?

Question arises often throughout course:

• Is something a wave, a particle, or both?
• How do we know?
• When best to think of as a wave? as a particle?

In classical view of light, EM radiation is viewed as a wave

(after lots of debate in 1600-1800’s).
In what sense does it act as a wave?

What is the most definitive observation we can make that

tells us something is a wave?
 EM radiation is a wave

What is most definitive observation we can

make that tells us something is a wave?
Observe interference.

Constructive interference: (peaks are lined up and valleys are lined up)

c
 EM radiation is a wave

What is most definitive observation we can

make that tells us something is a wave?
Observe interference.

Destructive interference: (peaks align with valleys

 add magnitudes  cancel out)
c

wave interference sim

 1-D interference
Constructive
c

Destructive

What happens with 1/4 phase interference?

Two-Slit Interference
 Double-Slit Experiment with Light
Recall solution for Electric field (E)
from the wave equation:
E  A cos(kx  t )
Let’s forget about the time-
dependence for now:
E  A cos(kx)
Euler’s Formula says: exp(ikx)  cos(kx)  i sin(kx)
E  A cos(kx)  Re[ A cos(kx)  iA sin(kx)]  Re[ A exp(ikx)]

For convenience, write: E  A exp(ikx)

Double-Slit Experiment with Light

Before Slits

E = Aexp( ikx)

After Slits
E1 = A1 exp( ikx1 ) & E2 = A2 exp( ikx2 )

 ETotal = E1 + E2
 A1 exp(ikx1 )  A2 exp(ikx2 )
 Double-Slit Experiment with Light
ETotal = A1 exp( ikx1 ) + A2 exp( ikx2 )
2
I : ETot = E * E

 A1 exp(ikx1 )  A2 exp(ikx2 )  A1 exp(ikx1 )  A2 exp(ikx2 ) 

 A1 exp(ikx1 ) A1 exp(ikx1 )  A2 exp(ikx2 ) A2 exp(ikx2 )
 A1 exp(ikx1 ) A2 exp(ikx2 )  A2 exp(ikx2 ) A1 exp(ikx1 )

 A  A2  A1 A2 exp(ik ( x2  x1 ))  exp(ik ( x2  x1 )) 
1
2 2

 A  A2  2 A1 A2 cos  k ( x2  x1 ) 
1
2 2
 Double-Slit Experiment with Light
2 2 2 ⎛ 2π ⎞
I : ETotal = A + A + 2 A1 A2 cos⎜ ( x2 −x1 )⎟
1 2
⎝λ ⎠

2 2
E1 E2 INTERFERENCE!

2 2 2
I : E1 + E2 ≠ E1 + E2

• For waves, we add the individual amplitudes to find

the amplitude of the total wave ( E)Total

• We square the sum (ETotal ) to find the intensity.

Double-Slit Experiment with Light

After slit, wave

spreads in all
directions rf ere
te
ti vely in
n s t ruc
sl its co
s f ro m ly i nte r fere
Wave d e st r u ctive
rom slit s
Wave s f
Double-slit experiment
Determining the space between peaks (H)
L

r1 H
r2
D Θ

Θ1
For constructive
D Θ
Θ2
Δr = r2-r1
Δr = mλ (where m=1,2,3…)
If screen far away
Θ1 ≈ Θ2 ≈ Θ Δr = Dsin(Θ)=DΘ =mλ
 Are they in phase?
H=mLλ What’s the difference in path?
L
D
m=1,2,3,…
r1 H
r2
D Θ

H = Lsin(Θ) = LΘ
DΘ =mλ
Θ = mλ/D
c

c
Double-slit experiment
H=mLλ L
D
m=1,2,3,…
r1 H
r2
D Θ

If we change from blue light (high f) to red (small f)

what happens to the spacing between peaks, H?

A) Increases B) Stays the same C) Decreases

Double-slit experiment
H=mLλ
D
m=1,2,3,… High f, Small λ Small f, Bigger λ

If we change from blue light (high f) to red (low f) what

happens to the spacing between peaks, H?

A) Increases B) Stays the same C) Decreases

 E-field describes probability of finding light there

Electromagnetic wave (e.g. hitting screen of double slit)

Screen
High Amplitude

Low Amplitude

Describe EM wave spread out in space.

Probability of detection (peak / trough)
~ (Amplitude of EM wave)2
 What are these waves?
EM Waves

• Amplitude E = electric field

2
• E tells you the intensity of
the wave. Superposition:
• Maxwell’s Equations: If E1 (x,t) is a solution, and
2E 1 2E E2 (x,t) is a solution, then
 2 2
x 2
c t E 1 (x,t) + E2 ( x, t) is also a solution.
• Solutions are sine/cosine
waves:

E ( x, t )  A sin(kx  t )
E ( x, t )  A cos(kx  t )
 So far…
very 2D .. What about 3-D

Note: light is transverse wave .. Not longitudinal

E-field cannot oscillate in direction of propagation
 Light is generally unpolarized

Now Imagine looking end on… down the x-axis

Could also be Or more generally
y

Light is generally oscillating every which way…

Simplify by having just two components
What happens if I run it through another filter:

+ =?

A) All light passes

B) All light passes & becomes unpolarized
C) 1/2 of light passes
D) No light passes
Polarizers
 Polarization
What happens if I run it through another filter:

+ =?

Hint: Now add:

= yields:
 What happens if I run it through another filter

+ =?

Nothing, right?
But what if I put this in the middle
Put this together…..
then

+ +

Hint: =
 Interferometers
1881 Michelson invented a device now known as the
‘Michelson Interferometer.’ (Nobel Prize, 1907)
We will see it in action in the famous Michelson-Morley
experiment, which will lead us to the special relativity
theory.  So the interferometer had a huge impact!!
Such interferometers are nowadays widely used for various
precision measurements. State-of-the-art visible-light
interferometers achieve resolutions of ~100pm! (X-ray
interferometers are ~1pm).
(100pm = 1Å = diameter of a Hydrogen atom.)
 Electromagnetic waves
E-field (for a single color):

E(x,t) = E0 sin(ωt+2πx/λ +ϕ)

Light source E λ = 2πc/ω, ω = 2πf = 2π/T
λ
A0
x
ϕ
Wavelength λ of visible light is:
E λ ~ 350 nm … 750 nm.

x
B
The Michelson interferometer
Mirrors

Light source

Semi-transparent
mirror

Detector
EM-Waves in an interferometer
Mirrors
L

Light source
L

Semi-transparent
mirror
 Constructive interference
Esum(x,t) = ½ ·E0 sin(ωt+2πx/λ +ϕ) + ½ ·E0 sin(ωt+2πx/λ +ϕ) = ?

= E0 sin(ωt+2πx/λ +ϕ) = Elight source(x,t)

+ = ?

Screen:
 Unequal arm lengths

Light source
L +ΔL/2

/2
ΔL

ΔL
 Destructive interference
Esum(x,t) = ½ ·E0 sin(ωt+2πx/λ +ϕ) + ½ ·E0 sin(ωt+2π(x+Δx)/λ +ϕ)

= ½ ·E0 sin(ωt+2πx/λ +ϕ) - ½ ·E0 sin(ωt+2πx/λ +ϕ) = 0

if Δx = λ / 2:
sin(x+π) = - sin(x)

+ = ?

Screen:
Moving mirror: What do you see?

Light source

ΔL

Intensity
Screen

λ
/2 ΔL
Tilted mirror: What do you see?
Fringes!

Light source

Screen
Gravitational wave detectors
 Summary
Michelson interferometers allow us to measure tiny
displacements. Displacements of less than 100 nm are made
visible to the eye!

Interferometers find many applications in precision

metrology such as for displacement, distance and stress
measurements as well as flatness measurements.

Interferometers have played an important role in physics:

Michelson-Morley experiment  special relativity
Testing general relativity: Gravitational wave detection
 Michelson and Morley…

…performed a famous*
experiment that effectively
measured the speed of light
in different directions with
respect to the “ether wind.”

*
some say, the most successful failure…
 Frame of reference
Observer on the sun:

‘Ether’

Ether ‘viewed’ in the laboratory on the earth:

-v -v
 Ether in the laboratory frame
v L v

u'-v

How can we measure the speed v of the ether?

If the ether would be a river, we could measure the speed of the water using a boat
that travels at a known speed u’. (u’ is the relative velocity between the boat and the
water.)

If the boat travels the distance L within the time t, then we know v: L=(u’-v)t, therefore
v = u’ – L/t

But: Very difficult with light! u’ = c  t ~ 10ns and v ~ 0.0001*c.

 We would have to measure t with an absolute precision of ~0.0000000000001s and we
have to know c very precisely!
 Measuring only differences in c

-v -v
u’+v
L

B A L
u’-v

Compare the round-trip times tA and tB for paths A and B. This has the great benefit,
that we do not have to measure the absolute times tA and tB (which are only a few
ns) and we are less sensitive to uncertainties in the speed of light.
 Michelson and Mirrors
Morley

-v L -v
Detector
L

Semi-transparent “Interferometer”
mirror

Light source

The detector measures differences in the position of the maxima or minima of the
light-waves of each of the two beams. (Yes, light is a wave!)