Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology, Greater

Noida

INTRODUCTION TO ARTIFICIAL
INTELLIGENCE

Unit: I

INTRODUCTION TO ARTIFICIAL
INTELLIGENCE (ACSAI-301)
Ms. Bhawna Wadhwa
Course Details Assistant Professor and
(B Tech - AI 3rd Sem) HOD (CS Deptt.)

Bhawna Wadhwa ACSAI-301 AI Unit 01

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09/28/22
 Noida Institute of Engineering and
Technology, Greater Noida

Introduction
• Bhawna Wadhwa
BE and M. Tech in CSE with 16 Years Teaching
Experience

 Area of Expertise: Security and Artificial

Intelligence.
 Attended and Conducted Numerous National
Level Workshops.
 Published about 20 National and International
Papers in reputed Journals.
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 Evaluation Scheme

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 Subject Syllabus

• UNIT-1 Introduction 8 Hours

Introduction to Artificial Intelligence, Historical developments of Artificial
Intelligence, well defined learning problems, Designing a Learning System,
Basics of problem-solving: problem representation paradigms, state space,
satisfiability vs optimality, pattern classification problems, example domains.

• UNIT-2 Search Techniques 8 H ours

Searching for solutions, Uninformed Search Strategies: DFS, BFS, Informed
Search Strategies: Local search algorithms and optimistic problems,
adversarial Search, Search for games, minimax, Alpha - Beta pruning,
Heuristic Search techniques, Hill Climbing, Best-first search, Problem
reduction, Constraint satisfaction, Means Ends Analysis, Iterative deepening
Heuristic Search and A*.

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 Subject Syllabus
• UNIT-3 Logic and Knowledge Representation 8 Hours
Introduction of Logic, Propositional Logic Concepts, Semantic Tableaux and Resolution in Propositional
logic, FOPL, Semantic Tableaux and Resolution in FOPL, Logic Programming in Prolog. Production
systems and rules for some AI problems: Water Jug Problem, Missionaries-Cannibals Problem, n-Queen
problem, monkey banana problem, Travelling Salesman Problem. Knowledge representation, semantic
nets, partitioned nets, parallel implementation of semantic nets. Frames, Common Sense reasoning and
thematic role frames.
• UNIT-4 Expert System 8 Hours
Architecture of knowledge-Based System, Rule-based systems, Forward and Backward Chaining, Frame
Based systems. Architecture of Expert System, Forward & Backward chaining, Resolution, Probabilistic
reasoning, Utility theory, Hidden Markov Models (HMM), Bayesian Networks.
• UNIT-5 Planning and Uncertainty 8 Hours
Planning with state Space Search, Conditional Planning, Continuous planning, Multi-Agent Planning, Forms
of learning, inductive learning, Reinforcement Learning, learning decision trees, Neural Net learning and
Genetic learning. Probabilistic Methods, Bayesian Theory, Dempster Shafer Theory, Bayes Network. 19
Evolutionary computation: Swarm Intelligence, ant colony optimization Agents, Intelligent Agents,
Structure of Intelligent Agents, Virtual Agents, Multi-agent systems.

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 Applications

Here is a list of eight examples of artificial intelligence that

you're likely to come across on a daily basis.

•Maps and Navigation. AI has drastically improved traveling.

•Facial Detection and Recognition.
•Text Editors or Autocorrect.
•Search and Recommendation Algorithms.
•Chatbots.
•Digital Assistants.
•Social Media.
•E-Payments.

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 Course Objectives

• Introduce knowledge of historical perspective of AI and its

foundations
• Familiarization with principles of AI toward problem solving,
inference, perception, knowledge representation, and learning.
• Introduce the concepts of Searching strategies used in Artificial
Intelligence.
• List the objectives and functions of modern Artificial Intelligence.
• Categorize an AI problem based on its characteristics and its
constraints.
• Learn different logic formalisms and decision taking in planning
problems.
• Introduce the concepts of AI agents for problem solving.

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 Course Outcomes

CO 1 Remember fundamental understanding of the history of K1

artificial intelligence (AI) and its foundations

CO 2 Apply principles of AI in solutions that require problem solving, K3

inference and perception
CO 3 Explain strong familiarity with a number of important AI K3
techniques, including in particular intelligent search methods
and solutions
CO 4 Apply the concepts of knowledge & reasoning of predicate K3
logic and representing knowledge using rules, Probabilistic
reasoning.

CO 5 Assess/ Evaluate critically the techniques presented and apply K4

them to real world problems

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 Program Outcomes

​
*1= Low *2= Medium         *3= High

Faculty Name Jyoti Sharma    Subject code

09/28/22 9
ACSBS0301       Unit Number1
 CO-PO Mapping

Mapping of Course Outcomes and Program Outcomes:

S. Course PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12
No Outcome

1 ACSAI-301.1

2
*3= High
ACSAI-301.2
*2= Medium *1 = Low

3 ACSAI-301.3

4 ACSAI-301.4

5 ACSAI-301.5

AVG

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 Question Paper Templet

Bhawna Wadhwa ACSAI-

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301 AI Unit 01
 Question Paper Templet

Bhawna Wadhwa ACSAI-

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 Brief Introduction (CO1)

• The intelligence demonstrated by machines is known as Artificial

Intelligence. It is the simulation of natural intelligence in machines that are
programmed to learn and mimic the actions of humans. These machines
are able to learn with experience and perform human-like tasks. As
technologies such as AI continue to grow, they will have a great impact on
our quality of life. It’s but natural that everyone today wants to connect
with AI technology somehow, may it be as an end-user or pursuing a
career in Artificial Intelligence.

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4jmsHaJ7xEA
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oV74Najm6Nc
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y5swZ2Q_lBw
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ptWmh0ocveM

09/28/22 Faculty Name Jyoti Sharma    Subject code ACSBS0301       Unit Number1 13

 Prerequisite and Recap

• Basic knowledge of AI and Machine Learning

Concepts.

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 Unit Content

• UNIT-1 Introduction 8 Hours

Introduction to Artificial Intelligence, Historical

developments of Artificial Intelligence, well defined
learning problems, Designing a Learning System,
Basics of problem-solving: problem representation
paradigms, state space, satisfiability vs optimality,
pattern classification problems, example domains.

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 Unit Objective

• To gain an understanding of the fundamentals of Artificial

Intelligence, History of Artificial Intelligence.

• To gain knowledge of historical development of AI.

• To gain knowledge of well defined learning problems,

Designing a Learning System.

• Basics of problem-solving Like problem representation

paradigms, state space, satisfiability vs optimality, pattern
classification problems, example domains.

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 Topic Objective

Topic- Introduction to Artificial Intelligence

To find out what are the fundamentals of Artificial
Intelligence.

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 Introduction to Artificial Intelligence

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 Introduction to Artificial Intelligence

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 Introduction to Artificial Intelligence

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 Introduction to Artificial Intelligence

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 Introduction to Artificial Intelligence

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 Introduction to Artificial Intelligence

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 Introduction to Artificial Intelligence

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 Introduction to Artificial Intelligence

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 Introduction to Artificial Intelligence

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 Introduction to Artificial Intelligence

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 Introduction to Artificial Intelligence

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 Introduction to Artificial Intelligence

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 Introduction to Artificial Intelligence

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 Introduction to Artificial Intelligence

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 Introduction to Artificial Intelligence

Definition of AI

Bhawna Wadhwa ACSAI-

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301 AI Unit 01
 Introduction to Artificial Intelligence

• Combination of 2 words:

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 Introduction to Artificial Intelligence

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 Introduction to Artificial Intelligence

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 Introduction to Artificial Intelligence

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 Components of Knowledge Pyramid

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 Daily QUIZ
AI is intelligence demonstrated by ________.
a.Machine
b.Human
c.Both a and b
d.Animals

Artificial Intelligence is about_____.

1.Playing a game on Computer
2.Making a machine Intelligent
3.Programming on Machine with your Own Intelligence
4.Putting your intelligence in Machine

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 Introduction to Artificial Intelligence

• What is AI?
Ability of machines to
–Learn
–Think
–Behave
Like humans
Formal Definition: branch of computer science which
emphasizes on creation of intelligent machines that work
and act like humans.

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 History of AI

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 History of AI

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 History of AI
• Maturation of Artificial Intelligence (1943-1952)

 Year 1943: The first work which is now recognized as AI was done by Warren
McCulloch and Walter pits in 1943. They proposed a model of artificial neurons.

 Year 1949: Donald Hebb demonstrated an updating rule for modifying the

connection strength between neurons. His rule is now called Hebbian learning.

 Year 1950: The Alan Turing who was an English mathematician and pioneered
Machine learning in 1950. Alan Turing publishes "Computing Machinery and
Intelligence" in which he proposed a test. The test can check the machine's
ability to exhibit intelligent behavior equivalent to human intelligence, called
a Turing test.

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 History of AI

 The birth of Artificial Intelligence (1952-1956)

 Year 1955: An Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon created the "first
artificial intelligence program"Which was named as "Logic
Theorist". This program had proved 38 of 52 Mathematics
theorems, and find new and more elegant proofs for some theorems.
 Year 1956: The word "Artificial Intelligence" first adopted by
American Computer scientist John McCarthy at the Dartmouth
Conference. For the first time, AI coined as an academic field.
 At that time high-level computer languages such as FORTRAN,
LISP, or COBOL were invented. And the enthusiasm for AI was
very high at that time.

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 History of AI

 The golden years-Early enthusiasm (1956-1974)

 Year 1966: The researchers emphasized developing algorithms
which can solve mathematical problems. Joseph Weizenbaum
created the first chatbot in 1966, which was named as ELIZA.
 Year 1972: The first intelligent humanoid robot was built in Japan
which was named as WABOT-1.
 The first AI winter (1974-1980)
 The duration between years 1974 to 1980 was the first AI winter
duration. AI winter refers to the time period where computer scientist
dealt with a severe shortage of funding from government for AI
researches.
 During AI winters, an interest of publicity on artificial intelligence
was decreased.

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 History of AI

 A boom of AI (1980-1987)
 Year 1980: After AI winter duration, AI came back with "Expert
System". Expert systems were programmed that emulate the
decision-making ability of a human expert.
 In the Year 1980, the first national conference of the American
Association of Artificial Intelligence was held at Stanford
University.
 The second AI winter (1987-1993)
 The duration between the years 1987 to 1993 was the second AI
Winter duration.
 Again Investors and government stopped in funding for AI research
as due to high cost but not efficient result. The expert system such as
XCON was very cost effective.
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 History of AI

 The emergence of intelligent agents (1993-2011)

 Year 1997: In the year 1997, IBM Deep Blue beats world chess
champion, Gary Kasparov, and became the first computer to beat a
world chess champion.
 Year 2002: for the first time, AI entered the home in the form of
Roomba, a vacuum cleaner.
 Year 2006: AI came in the Business world till the year 2006.
Companies like Facebook, Twitter, and Netflix also started using AI.

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 Daily QUIZ

Who is known as the -Father of AI"?

1.Fisher Ada
2.Alan Turing
3.John McCarthy
4.Allen Newell
Which of the given language is not commonly used for
AI?
1.LISP
2.PROLOG
3.Python
4.Perl

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 History of AI

 Deep learning, big data and artificial general intelligence

(2011-present)
 Year 2011: In the year 2011, IBM's Watson won jeopardy, a quiz show,
where it had to solve the complex questions as well as riddles. Watson had
proved that it could understand natural language and can solve tricky
questions quickly.
 Year 2012: Google has launched an Android app feature "Google now",
which was able to provide information to the user as a prediction.
 Year 2014: In the year 2014, Chatbot "Eugene Goostman" won a
competition in the infamous "Turing test."
 Year 2018: The "Project Debater" from IBM debated on complex topics
with two master debaters and also performed extremely well.
 Google has demonstrated an AI program "Duplex" which was a virtual
assistant and which had taken hairdresser appointment on call, and lady on
other side didn't notice that she was talking with the machine.
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 Well Defined Learning Problems

Artificial Intelligence provides right extracted knowledge to make

more informed, data-driven decisions that are faster than traditional
approaches. However, it's not the mythical, magical process many
build it up to be. Artificial Intelligence presents its own set of
challenges. Here are some common learning problems.

1) Understanding Which Processes Need Automation

It's becoming increasingly difficult to separate fact from fiction in
terms of AI today. Before you decide on which AI platform to use,
you need to evaluate which problems you’re seeking to solve. The
easiest processes to automate are the ones that are done manually
every day with no variable output. Complicated processes require
further inspection before automation.

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 Well Defined Learning Problems

2) Lack of Quality Data

The number one problem facing AI is the lack of good data. While
enhancing algorithms often consumes most of the time of
developers in AI, data quality is essential for the algorithms to
function as intended. Noisy data, dirty data, and incomplete data are
the quintessential enemies of ideal Machine Learning.
3) Inadequate Infrastructure
AI requires vast amounts of data churning capabilities. 
Legacy systems often can’t handle the workload and buckle under
pressure. You should check if your infrastructure can handle
Machine. If it can’t, you should look to upgrade, complete with
hardware acceleration and flexible storage.

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 Well Defined Learning Problems

4) Implementation
Organizations often have analytics engines working with them by
the time they choose to upgrade to AI. Integrating newer AI
methodologies into existing methodologies is a complicated task.
Maintaining proper interpretation and documentation goes a long
way to easing implementation. Partnering with an 
implementation partner can make the implementation of services
like anomaly detection, predictive analysis, and ensemble
modeling much easier.

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 Other AI Problems

1. Lack of technical knowledge

To integrate, deploy and implement AI applications in the enterprise, the
organization must have the knowledge of the current AI advancement and
technologies as well as its shortcomings. The lack of technical know-how is
hindering the adoption of this niche domain in most of the organization.
Only 6% enterprises, currently, having a smooth ride adopting AI
technologies. Enterprise requires a specialist to identify the roadblocks in
the deployment process. Skilled human resources would also help the
teamwork with Return on in tracking of adopting AI/ML solutions.

2. The price factor

Small and mid-sized organization struggles a lot when it comes to adopting
AI technologies as it is a costly affair. Even big firms like Facebook, Apple,
Microsoft, Google, Amazon (FAMGA) allocate a separate budget for
adopting and implementing AI technologies.
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 Other AI Problems

3. Data acquisition and storage

One of the biggest Artificial Intelligence problems is data acquisition and
storage. Business AI systems depend on sensor data as its input. For
validation of AI, a mountain of sensor data is collected. Irrelevant and
noisy datasets may cause obstruction as they are hard to store and analyze.
AI works best when it has a good amount of quality data available to it.
The algorithm becomes strong and performs well as the relevant data
grows. The AI system fails badly when enough quality data isn’t fed into
it.
With small input variations in data quality having such profound results on
outcomes and predictions, there’s a real need to ensure greater stability and
accuracy in Artificial Intelligence. Furthermore, in some industries, such as
industrial applications, sufficient data might not be available, limiting AI
adoption

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 Other AI Problems

4. Rare and expensive workforce

As mentioned above, adoption and deployment of AI technologies
require specialists like data scientists, data engineer and other
SMEs (Subject Matter Experts). These experts are expensive and
rare in the current marketplace. Small and medium-sized
enterprises fall short of their tight budget to bring in the manpower
according to the requirement of the project.
5. Issue of responsibility
The implementation of AI application comes with great
responsibility. Any specific individual must bear the burden of any
sort of hardware malfunctions. Earlier, it was relatively easy to
determine whether an incident was the result of the actions of a
user, developer or manufacturer.

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 Other AI Problems

6. Ethical challenges
One of the major AI problems that are yet be tackled are the ethics and
morality. The way how the developers are technically grooming the AI
bots to perfection where it can flawlessly imitate human conversations,
making it increasingly tough to spot a difference between a machine and
a real customer service rep.
Artificial intelligence algorithm predicts based on the training given to it.
The algorithm will label things as per the assumption of data it is trained
on. Hence, it will simply ignore the correctness of data, for example- if
the algorithm is trained on data that reflects racism or sexism, the result
of prediction will mirror back it instead of correcting it automatically.
There are some current algorithms that have mislabeled black people as
‘gorillas’. Therefore, we need to make sure that the algorithms are fair,
especially when it is used by private and corporate individuals.

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 Other AI Problems

7. Lack of computation speed

AI, Machine learning and deep learning solutions require a high degree
of computation speeds offered only by high-end processors. Larger
infrastructure requirements and pricing associated with these processors
has become a hindrance in their general adoption of the AI technology.
In this scenario, cloud computing environment and multiple processors
running in parallel offer a potent alternative to cater to these
computational requirements. As the volume of data available for
processing grows exponentially, the computation speed requirements
will grow with it. It is imperative to develop next-gen computational
infrastructure solutions.

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 Other AI Problems

8. Legal Challenges
An AI application with an erroneous algorithm and data governance can
cause legal challenges for the company. This is yet again one of the
biggest Artificial Intelligence problems that a developer faces in a real
world. Flawed algorithm made with an inappropriate set of data can
leave a colossal dent in an organization’s profit. An erroneous algorithm
will always make incorrect and unfavorable predictions. Problems like
data breach can be a consequence of weak & poor data governance–
how? To an algorithm, a user’s PII (personal identifiable information)
acts as a feed stock which may slip into the hands of hackers.
Consequently, the organization will fall into the traps of legal challenges.

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 Other AI Problems
9. AI Myths & Expectation:
There’s a quite discrepancy between the actual potential of the AI system
and the expectations of this generation. Media says, Artificial
Intelligence, with its cognitive capabilities, will replace human’s jobs.
However, the IT industry has a challenge on their hands to address these
lofty expectations by accurately conveying that AI is just a tool that can
operate only with the indulgence of human brains. AI can definitely
boost the outcome of something that will replace human roles like
automation of routine or common work, optimizations of every industrial
work, data-driven predictions, etc.
However, in most of the occasions (particularly in highly specialized
roles), AI cannot substitute the caliber of the human brain and what it
brings to the table.
Not everything you hear about AI is true. AI is often over-hyped. Read
this article from Forbes to clear all your misconceptions about the AI
technologies.
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 Other AI Problems
10. Difficulty of assessing vendors
In any emerging field, a tech procurement is quite challenging as AI is
particularly vulnerable. Businesses face a lot of problems to know how
exactly they can use AI effectively as many non-AI companies engage in
AI washing, some organizations overstate.
It’s true that AI technology is a luxurious retreat because you cannot
oversee the radical changes it brings in to the organization. However, to
implement it an organization needs experts who are hard to find. For
successful adoption, it needs a high-degree computation
processing. Enterprises should concentrate on how they can responsibly
mitigate these Artificial Intelligence problems rather than staying back
and ignore this ground-breaking technology.
The key lies in minimizing the Artificial Intelligence problems and
maximizing the benefits through the creation of an extensive technology
adoption roadmap that understands the core capabilities of artificial
intelligence.
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 Design a learning system

Learning: A Definition
• Definition: A computer program is said to learn from
experience E with respect to some class of tasks T and
performance measure P, if its performance at tasks in
T, as measured by P, improves with experience E.

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 Design a learning system

Examples of Successful Applications of

Machine Learning

• Learning to recognize spoken words (Lee, 1989; Waibel,

1989).
• Learning to drive an autonomous vehicle (Pomerleau,
1989).
• Learning to classify new astronomical structures (Fayyad
et al., 1995).
• Learning to play world-class backgammon (Tesauro 1992,
1995).

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 Design a learning system

Why Learning is Important?

• Some tasks cannot be defined well, except by
examples (e.g., recognizing people).
• Relationships and correlations can be hidden within
large amounts of data. Machine Learning/Data Mining
may be able to find these relationships.
• Human designers often produce machines that do not
work as well as desired in the environments in which
they are used.

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 Design a learning system

• The amount of knowledge available about certain

tasks might be too large for explicit encoding by
humans (e.g., medical diagnostic).
• Environments change over time.
• New knowledge about tasks is constantly being
discovered by humans. It may be difficult to
continuously re-design systems “by hand”.

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 Design a learning system

Areas of Influence for Learning

• Statistics: How best to use samples drawn from unknown probability

distributions to help decide from which distribution some new
sample is drawn?
• Brain Models: Non-linear elements with weighted inputs (Artificial
Neural Networks) have been suggested as simple models of
biological neurons.
• Adaptive Control Theory: How to deal with controlling a process
having unknown parameters that must be estimated during
operation?

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 Design a learning system

Areas of Influence for Learning

• Psychology: How to model human performance on various

learning tasks?
• Artificial Intelligence: How to write algorithms to acquire the
knowledge humans are able to acquire, at least, as well as
humans?
• Evolutionary Models: How to model certain aspects of
biological evolution to improve the performance of computer
programs?

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 Design a learning system

What are learning initiatives?

Learning initiatives include training, development and knowledge

management. Learning includes acquisition of knowledge, skills,
behaviors or competencies. Both tacit and explicit knowledge about the
organization, customers and business process is critical for
organizational success. Explicit knowledge refers to knowledge that
can be formalized, coded and communicated. It is found in manuals,
formula and specifications. Tacit knowledge refers to personal,
experience-based knowledge that is difficult to explain to others.

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 Design a learning system

In order to illustrate some of the basic design issues and

approaches to machine learning, let us consider designing a
program to learn to play checkers, with the goal of entering it in
the world checkers tournament. We adopt the obvious
performance measure: the percent of games it wins in this
world tournament

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 Design a learning system
Designing a Learning System:
An Example
1. Problem Description
2. Choosing the Training Experience
3. Choosing the Target Function
4. Choosing a Representation for the Target
Function
5. Choosing a Function Approximation Algorithm
6. Final Design

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 Design a learning system

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 Design a learning system

1. Problem Description: A Checker Learning

Problem
• Task T: Playing Checkers
• Performance Measure P: Percent of games won
against opponents
• Training Experience E: To be selected ==> Games
Played against itself

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 Design a learning system

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 Design a learning system

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 Design a learning system

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 Design a learning system

Choosing the Training Experience

The first design choice we face is to choose the type of training

experience from which our system will learn.

The type of training experience available can have a significant

impact on success or failure of the learner.

1. One key attribute is whether the training experience provides

direct or indirect feedback regarding the choices made by the
performance system.

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For example, in learning to play checkers,

The system might learn from direct training examples consisting

of individual checkers board states and the correct move for each.

Alternatively, it might have available only indirect information

consisting of the move sequences and final outcomes of various
games played. (Credit Assignment Problem )

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2. A second important attribute of the training experience is the

degree to which the learner controls the sequence of training
examples.

3. A third important attribute of the training experience is

how well it represents the distribution of examples over
which the final system performance P must be measured.

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Choosing the Target Function

The next design choice is to determine exactly what type of
knowledge will be learned and how this will be used by the
performance program.
Let us begin with a checkers-playing program that can generate
the legal moves from any board state.
The program needs only to learn how to choose the best move
from among these legal moves. This learning task is
representative of a large class of tasks for which the legal
moves that define some large search space are known a priori,
but for which the best search strategy is not known.

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 Design a learning system

Many optimization problems fall into this class, such as the

problems of scheduling and controlling manufacturing processes
where the available manufacturing steps are well understood, but
the best strategy for sequencing them is not.
Let us call this function ChooseMove and use the notation
ChooseMove : B M
to indicate that this function accepts as input any board from the
set of legal board states B and produces as output some move
from the set of legal moves M.
Throughout our discussion of machine learning we will find it
useful to reduce the problem of improving performance P at task
T to the problem of learning some particular targetfunction such
as ChooseMove.

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 Design a learning system

Although ChooseMove is an obvious choice for the target

function in our example, this function will turn out to be very
difficult to learn given the kind of indirect training experience
available to our system. An alternative target function and one
that will turn out to be easier to learn in this setting-is an
evaluation function that assigns a numerical score to any given
board state.

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 Design a learning system

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Let us therefore define the target value V(b) for an arbitrary
board state b in B, as follows:

1. if b is a final board state that is won, then V(b) = 100

2. if b is a final board state that is lost, then V(b) = -100
3. if b is a final board state that is drawn, then V(b) = 0
4. if b is a not a final state in the game, then V(b) = V(b’),
where b' is the best final board state that can be achieved starting
from b and playing optimally until the end of the game

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 Design a learning system

Choosing a Representation for the Target Function

Now that we have specified the ideal target function V, we must
choose a representation that the learning program will use to
describe the function V’ that it will learn. As with earlier design
choices, we again have many options.

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 Design a learning system

To keep the discussion brief, let us choose a simple

representation: for any given board state, the function c will be
calculated as a linear combination of the following board
features:
xl: the number of black pieces on the board
x2: the number of red pieces on the board
x3: the number of black kings on the board
x4: the number of red kings on the board
x5: the number of black pieces threatened by red (i.e., which can be
captured on red's next turn)
X6: the number of red pieces threatened by black

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 Design a learning system

Thus, our learning program will represent V’(b) as a linear

function of the form

 where wo through W6 are numerical coefficients, or weights, to be

chosen by the learning algorithm.
 Learned values for the weights wl through W6 will determine the relative
importance of the various board features in determining the value of the
board.
 The weight wo will provide an additive constant to the board value.

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 Design a learning system
Partial design of a checkers learning program:
•Task T: playing checkers
•Performance measure P: percent of games won in the world
tournament
•Training experience E: games played against itself
•Target function: V:Board + 8
•Target function representation

The first three items above correspond to the specification of the

learning task, whereas the final two items constitute design
choices for the implementation of the learning program.

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Choosing a Function Approximation Algorithm

In order to learn the target function f we require a set of
training examples, each describing a specific board state b and
the training value V train(b) for b.

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ADJUSTING THE WEIGHTS

Specify the learning algorithm for choosing the weights wi to best

fit the set of training examples { (b,V train(b))}.
A first step we must define what we mean by the bestfit to the
training data.
•One common approach is to define the best hypothesis, or set of
weights, as that which minimizes the squarg error E between the
training values and the values predicted by the hypothesis .

Several algorithms are known for finding weights of a linear

function that minimize E
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 Design a learning system

In our case, we require an algorithm that will incrementally refine

the weights as new training examples become available and that
will be robust to errors in these estimated training values.
One such algorithm is called the least mean squares, or LMS
training rule. For each observed training example it adjusts the
weights a small amount in the direction that reduces the error on
this training example.

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The Final Design

The final design of our checkers learning system can be
naturally described by four distinct program modules that
represent the central components in many learning systems.
These four modules, summarized in Figure 1.1, are as follows:
The Performance System is the module that must solve the given
performance task, in this case playing checkers, by using the learned
target function(s). It takes an instance of a new problem (new game)
as input and produces a trace of its solution (game history) as output.
In our case, the strategy used by the Performance System to select its
next move at each step is determined by the learned p evaluation
function. Therefore, we expect its performance to improve as this
evaluation function becomes increasingly accurate.

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The Critic takes as input the history or trace of the game and
produces as output a set of training examples of the target
function. As shown in the diagram, each training example in this
case corresponds to some game state in the trace, along with an
estimate Vtraio,f the target function value for this example. In
our example, the Critic corresponds to the training rule given by
Equation (1.1).
The Generalizer takes as input the training examples and
produces an output hypothesis that is its estimate of the target
function. It generalizes from the specific training examples,
hypothesizing a general function that covers these examples and
other cases beyond the training examples. In our example, the
Generalizer corresponds to the LMS algorithm, and the output
hypothesis is the function f described by the learned weights
wo, . . . , W6.
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The Experiment Generator takes as input the current

hypothesis (currently learned function) and outputs a new
problem (i.e., initial board state) for the Performance System to
explore. Its role is to pick new practice problems that will
maximize the learning rate of the overall system. In our
example, the Experiment Generator follows a very simple
strategy: It always proposes the same initial game board to begin
a new game. More sophisticated strategies could involve
creating board positions designed to explore particular regions of
the state space.

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 Design a learning system

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 Daily QUIZ

Agents behavior can be best described by ______

a. Perception sequence
b. Agent Function
c. Sensors and Actuators
d. All of the above

Which of the following are examples of Machine Learning?

a. Learning to recognize spoken words
b. Learning to drive an autonomous vehicle
c. Learning to classify new astronomical structures
d. All of the above

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 Basics of problem-solving

Problem
representation paradigms

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■ In which we see how an agent can find a sequence of

actions that achieves its goals, when no single action
will do.
■ The method of solving problem through AI involves the
process of defining the search space, deciding start and
goal states and then finding the path from start state to
goal state through search space.
■ State space search is a process used in the field of
computer science, including artificial intelligence(AI),
in which successive configurations or states of an
instance are considered, with the goal of finding a goal
state with a desired property.
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 Basics of problem-solving

■ This is a one kind of goal-based agent called a

problem-solving agent.
■ Problem-solving agents use atomic
representations, states of the world are
considered as wholes, with no internal structure
visible to the problem solving algorithms.

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■ Goal-based agents that use more advanced factored or structured

representations are usually called planning agents.
■ Problem solving begins with precise definitions of problems and
their solutions and give several examples to illustrate these
definitions.
■ We then describe several general-purpose search algorithms that
can be used to solve these problems. We will see several
uninformed search algorithms— algorithms that are given no
information about the problem other than its definition.
■ Although some of these algorithms can solve any solvable
problem, none of them can do so efficiently.
■ Informed search algorithms, on the other hand, can do quite well
given some guidance on where to look for solutions.

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Problem Solving Agents

performance measure.
■Problem-solving agents: find sequence of
actions that achieve goals.
■In this section we will use a map as an
example, if you take fast look you can
deduce that each node represents a city, and
the cost to travel from a city to another is
denoted by the number over the edge
connecting the nodes of those 2 cities.
■In order for an agent to solve a problem it
should pass by 2 phases of formulation:

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■ Goal Formulation:
– Problem solving is about having a goal we want to reach, (e.i: I
want to travel from ‘A’ to ‘E’).
– Goals have the advantage of limiting the objectives the agent is
trying to achieve.
– We can say that goal is a set of environment states in which our
goal is satisfied.
■ Problem Formulation:
– A problem formulation is about deciding what actions and
states to consider, we will come to this point it shortly.
– We will describe our states as “in(CITYNAME)”
where CITYNAME is the name of the city in which we are currently
in.

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■ Once our agent has found the sequence of cities it should pass by to reach its
goal it should start following this sequence.
■ The process of finding such sequence is called search, a search algorithm is
like a black box which takes problem as input returns a solution, and once
the solution is found the sequence of actions it recommends is carried out
and this is what is called the execution phase.
■ We now have a simple (formulate, search, execute) design for our problem
solving agent, so lets find out precisely how to formulate a problem.

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 Basics of problem-solving
Formulating Problems

■ A problem can be defined formally by 4 components:

■ Initial State:
– it is the state from which our agents start solving the problem {e.i: in(A)}.
■ State Description:
– a description of the possible actions available to the agent, it is common to
describe it by means of a successor function, given state x then SUCCESSOR-
FN(x) returns a set of ordered pairs
<action, successor> where action is a legal action from state x and successor is the
state in
which we can be by applying action.
– The initial state and the successor function together defined what is called state
space which is the set of all possible states reachable from the initial state {e.i:
in(A), in(B), in(C), in(D), in(E)}.

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■ Goal Test:
– we should be able to decide whether the current state is a goal state {e.i: is
the current state is in(E)?}.
■ Path cost:
– a function that assigns a numeric value to each path, each step we take in
solving the problem should be somehow weighted, so If I travel from A to
E our agent will pass by many cities, the cost to travel between two
consecutive cities should have some cost measure, {e.i: Traveling from ‘A’
to ‘B’ costs 20 km or it can be typed as c(A, 20, B)}.
■ A solution to a problem is path from the initial state to a goal state, and
solution quality is measured by the path cost, and the optimal solution
has the lowest path cost among all possible solutions.

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 Example

EXAMPLE
PROBLEMS
Toy Problem

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 Example

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 Example

Vacuum
World
– Initial state:
■Our vacuum can be in any state of the 8 states shown in the picture.
– State description:
■Successor function generates legal states resulting from applying the
three actions {Left, Right, and Suck}.
■The states space is shown in the picture, there are 8 world states.
– Goal test:
■Checks whether all squares are clean.
– Path cost:
■Each step costs 1, so the path cost is the sum of steps in the path.

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 Example

EXAMPLE
PROBLEMS
8 Puzzle

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 Example

8-
Puzzle
■ Initial state:
– Our board can be in any state resulting from making it in any configuration.
■ State description:
– Successor function generates legal states resulting from applying the three actions {move blank Up, Down, Left, or
Right}.
– State description specifies the location of each of the eight titles and the blank.
■ Goal test:
– Checks whether the states matches the goal configured in the goal state shown in the picture.
■ Path cost:
– Each step costs 1, so the path cost is the sum of steps in the path.

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EXAMPLE
PROBLEMS
8-Queens Problem

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 Example

8-Queens Problem
■ States: ???
■ Initial State: ???
■ Successor Function: ???
■ Goal Test: ???

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 Example

EXAMPLE
PROBLEMS
Real World Problem

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 Example

Real World
Problems
■ Airline Travelling Problem
■ States:
– Each is represented by a location and the current time.
■ Initial State:
– This is specified by the problem.
■ Successor Function:
– This returns the states resulting from taking any scheduled flight, leaving later than the current time plus
the within airport transit time, from the current airport to another.
■ Goal Test:
– Are we at the destination by some pre-specified time?
■ Path Cost:
– This depends on the monetary cost, waiting time, flight time, customs and immigration procedures, seat
quality, time of day, type of air place, frequent-flyer mileage awards and so on. 12
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 Example

Continue…
■ Touring problems
■ Traveling
salesperson problem
■ Robot navigation
■ Automatic assembly
sequencing

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 Example

SEARCHING FOR
SOLUTIONS
■ After formulating our problem we are ready to solve it, this can be done by
searching through the state space for a solution, this search will be applied on a
search tree or generally a graph that is generated using the initial state and the
successor function.
■ Searching is applied to a search tree which is generated through state expansion,
that is applying the successor function to the current state, note that here we
mean by state a node in the search tree.
■ Generally, search is about selecting an option and putting the others aside for
later in case the first option does not lead to a solution, The choice of which
option to expand first is determined by the search strategy used.

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 Example

Continue
…
■ The structure of a node in the search tree can be as follows:
– State: the state in the state space to which this state corresponds
– Parent-Node: the node in the search graph that generated this node.
– Action: the action that was applied to the parent to generate this node.
– Path-Cost: the cost of the path from the initial state to this node.
– Depth: the number of steps along the path from the initial state.
■ It is important to make a distinction between nodes and states, A node in the search tree
is a data structure holds a certain state and some info used to represent the search tree,
where state corresponds to a world configuration, that is more than one node can hold the
same state, this can happened if 2 different paths lead to the same state.

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 Example

Measuring problem-solving
performance
■ Search as a black box will result in an output that is either failure or a solution,
We will evaluate a search algorithm`s performance in four ways:
– Completeness: is it guaranteed that our
algorithmalways finds a solution when there is one ?
– Optimality: Does our algorithm always find the optimal solution ?
– Time complexity: How much time our search
algorithmtakes to find a solution ?
– Space complexity: How much memory required to run the search algorithm?
■ Time and Space in complexity analysis are measured with respect to the number
of nodes the problem graph has in terms of asymptotic notations.

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 Example

Continue
…
■ In AI, complexity is expressed by three factors b, d and
m:
1. b the branching factor is the maximum number of successors of any node.
2. d the depth of the deepest goal.
3. m the maximum length of any path in the state space.

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 Example

Problem Solving
By Search
■ Missionaries and Cannibals
– Three missionaries and cannibals are on one side of a
river, along with a boat that can hold one or two people.
Find a way to get everyone to the other side, without ever
leaving a group of missionaries outnumbered by cannibals.
– How do we transport them other side of the river?

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 Example

RECA
P

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 Example

Recap
■ Before an agent can start searching for solutions, a goal must be
identified and a well defined problem must be formulated.
■ A problem consists of five parts: the initial state, a set of actions, a
transition model describing the results of those actions, a goal test
function, and a path cost function.
■ The environment of the problem is represented by a state space. A path
through the state space from the initial state to a goal state is a solution.
■ Search algorithms are judged on the basis of completeness, optimality,
time complexity, and space complexity. Complexity depends on b, the
branching factor in the state space, and d, the depth of the shallowest
solution.

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 Example

Problem solving
■ We want:
– To automatically solve a problem
■ We need:
– A representation of the problem
– Algorithms that use some strategy to solve the problem defined in that
representation

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 Example

Problem representation
■ General:
– State space: a problem is divided into a set of resolution steps from the initial state
to the goal state
– Reduction to sub-problems: a problem is arranged into a hierarchy of sub-
problems
■ Specific:
– Game resolution
– Constraints satisfaction

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01
 Daily QUIZ
AI is intelligence demonstrated by ________.
a.Machine
b.Human
c.Both a and b
d.Animals

Artificial Intelligence is about_____.

1.Playing a game on Computer
2.Making a machine Intelligent
3.Programming on Machine with your Own Intelligence
4.Putting your intelligence in Machine

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 Daily QUIZ

Who is known as the -Father of AI"?

1.Fisher Ada
2.Alan Turing
3.John McCarthy
4.Allen Newell
Which of the given language is not commonly used for
AI?
1.LISP
2.PROLOG
3.Python
4.Perl

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 Daily QUIZ

Agents behavior can be best described by ______

a. Perception sequence
b. Agent Function
c. Sensors and Actuators
d. All of the above

Which of the following are examples of Machine Learning?

a. Learning to recognize spoken words
b. Learning to drive an autonomous vehicle
c. Learning to classify new astronomical structures
d. All of the above

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 Assignment

What do you understand by Artificial Intelligence?

Why do we need Artificial Intelligence?
Give some real-world applications of AI.
What are the types of AI?
Which programming language is used for AI?
What is the intelligent agent in AI, and where are they used?
How is machine learning related to AI?
What is Strong AI, and how is it different from the Weak AI?
Give a brief introduction to the Turing test in AI?
What is a Chatbot?
What are the different areas where AI has a great impact?
What is Artificial Intelligence? Give an example of where AI is
used on a daily basis.
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Explain the assessment that is used to test the intelligence of a
 Assignment

What are the core components of Learning System? What do you mean by well
defined Learning System?
What are the basic attributes of types of training in a Learning System?
How is machine learning related to AI?
How will artificial intelligence change the future?
What do you mean by well-defined Learning System? Explain the steps to design a
well- defined Learning System.
Explain Knowledge Pyramid.
Explain the Goal of Artificial Intelligence?
What is the future of Artificial intelligence?
 Distinguish between strong and weak artificial intelligence?
What are the three features of well-posed learning problem?
Elaborate on the History of Artificial Intelligence.
Explain the different steps to design a well- defined Learning System in detail.
Explain well defined or well posed Learning System with one example.

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 MCQ’s

An AI problem can be solved using

a.State Space Representation
b.Problem Reduction
c.Both a and b
d.None of the above

What among the following is/are the example of the intelligent

agent/agents?
a. Human
b. Robot
c. Autonomous Spacecraft
d. All of the above

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 MCQ’s

The core components of learning system are:

a. The class of Tasks
b. Measure of performance
c. Source of Experience
d. All of the above

What is Human Intelligence?

a.Learning
b.Perceiving
c.Reasoning
d.All of the above

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 MCQ’s

The core components of learning system are:

a. The class of Tasks
b. Measure of performance
c. Source of Experience
d. All of the above

What is Human Intelligence?

a.Learning
b.Perceiving
c.Reasoning
d.All of the above

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 Glossary Question

Computer, Algorithm, human, Artificial Intelligence, Machine learning,

Chatbots, f(n) = h(n), Time, Shallowest
1.____________ is a formula given to a computer in order for it to
complete a task (i.e. a set of rules for a __________).
2._____________a subset of computer science that deals with computer

systems performing tasks with similar, equal, or superior intelligence to

that of a __________.
3._____________a chat robot that can converse with a human user

through text or voice commands.

4._____________focuses on developing programs that access and use

data on their own, leading machines to learn for themselves and improve
from learned experiences.

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 Glossary Question

Computer, Algorithm, human, Artificial Intelligence, Machine learning,

Chatbots, f(n) = h(n), Time, Shallowest
Breadth-first search always expands the ______ node in the current
1.

fringe of the search tree.

2. Heuristic function of greedy best-first search denoted as ______.
____________complexity is a measure of time for an algorithm to
3.

complete its task.

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 Old Question Papers

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 Old Question Papers

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 Sessional Papers
Printed page: 2 Subject Code: ACSAI0301
Roll No:

NOIDA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY ,GREATER NOIDA

(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to AKTU, Lucknow)

B.Tech (AI/AIML)
(SEM: 3rd SESSIONAL EXAMINATION –I )(2021-2022)
Subject Name: Introduction to Artificial Intelligence
Time: 1.15Hours Max. Marks:30

General Instructions:
 All questions are compulsory. Answers should be brief and to the point.
 This Question paper consists of 2 pages & 5 questions.
 It comprises of three Sections, A, B, and C. You are to attempt all the sections.
 Section A -Question No- 1 is objective type questions carrying 1 mark each, Question No- 2 is very short
answer type carrying 2 mark each. You are expected to answer them as directed.
 Section B - Question No-3 is Short answer type question s carrying 5 marks each. You need to attempt
any two out of three question s given.
 Section C -Question No. 4 & 5are Long answer type (within unit choice) questions carrying 6marks
each. You need to attempt any one part a or b.
 Students are in structed to cross the blank sheets before handing over the answer sheet to the invigilator.
 No sheet should be left blank. Any written material after a blank sheet will not be evaluated/ checked.

SECTION – A [8]

1. Attempt all parts (4×1=4) CO

a. In state-space, the set of actions for a given problem is expressed by the: (1) CO1
a. Intermediate States
b. Successor function that takes current action and returns next state
c. Initial States
d. None of the above

b. The primary interactive method of communication used by humans is: (1) CO2
a. Reading
b. Writing
c. Speaking
d. All of the above

c. The core components of learning system are: (1) CO2

a. The class of Tasks
b. Measure of performance
c. Source of Experience
d. All of the Above

d. What is Human Intelligence? (1) CO1

a. Learning
b. Perceiving
c. Reasoning

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 Expected Question

• What are the core components of Learning System? What do you mean by
well defined Learning System?
• What are the three features of well-posed learning problem?
• Elaborate on the History of Artificial Intelligence.
• What is a Chatbot?
• What are the different areas where AI has a great impact?
• What is Artificial Intelligence? Give an example of where AI is used on a
daily basis.
• Explain the different steps to design a well- defined Learning System in
detail.
• Write down the following
– Machine Learning
– Speech Recognition
– Deep Learning
– Artificial Intelligence

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 Recap Summery

In this unit we study about the introduction to Artificial

Intelligence- What is AI ?, Its application, Its
Importance and its Future.
Historical developments of Artificial Intelligence-
When AI came in to the picture,
Well defined learning problems- Problems Related to
AI.
Designing a Learning System, Basics of problem-
solving: problem representation paradigms, state space,
satisfiability vs optimality, pattern classification
problems, example domains.
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 Recap Summery

Basics of problem-solving:- how to represent the

problem.
State space- State space representation of the problem ,
satisfiability vs optimality, pattern classification
problems, example domains.

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 References

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