Introduction to Data Management

Outline
• Database-System Applications
• Purpose of Database Systems
• View of Data
• Database Languages
• Database Design
• Database Engine
• Database Architecture
• Database Users and Administrators
• History of Database Systems
 • DBMS contains information about a particular
enterprise
• Collection of interrelated data
Database • Set of programs to access the data
• An environment that is both convenient
Systems and efficient to use
• Database systems are used to manage
collections of data that are:
• Highly valuable
• Relatively large
• Accessed by multiple users and
applications, often at the same time.
• A modern database system is a complex
software system whose task is to manage a
large, complex collection of data.
• Databases touch all aspects of our lives
 • Enterprise Information
• Sales: customers, products, purchases
• Accounting: payments, receipts, assets
• Human Resources: Information about employees,
salaries, payroll taxes.
• Manufacturing: management of production, inventory,
orders, supply chain.
Database • Banking and finance

Applications • customer information, accounts, loans, and banking

transactions.

Examples
• Credit card transactions
• Finance: sales and purchases of financial
instruments (e.g., stocks and bonds; storing real-
time market data
• Universities: registration, grades
Database • Airlines: reservations, schedules
Applications • Telecommunication: records of calls, texts,
and data usage, generating monthly bills,
Examples maintaining balances on prepaid calling cards
• Web-based services
(Cont.) • Online retailers: order tracking,
customized recommendations
• Online advertisements
• Document databases- – non relational
database that is designed to store and
query data as JSON-like documents.
• Navigation systems: For maintaining the
locations of varies places of interest along
with the exact routes of roads, train systems,
buses, etc.
 In the early days, database applications were built directly
on top of file systems, which leads to:

Purpose of • Data redundancy and inconsistency: data is stored in

multiple file formats resulting induplication of information
Database in different files
Systems • Difficulty in accessing data
• Need to write a new program to carry out each new
task
• Data isolation
• Multiple files and formats
• Integrity problems
• Integrity constraints (e.g., account balance > 0)
become “buried” in program code rather than being
stated explicitly
• Hard to add new constraints or change existing ones
 • Atomicity of updates
• Failures may leave database in an
inconsistent state with partial updates
carried out
• Example: Transfer of funds from one account
to another should either complete or not
happen at all
Purpose of • Concurrent access by multiple users

Database • Concurrent access needed for performance

• Uncontrolled concurrent accesses can lead

Systems
to inconsistencies
• Ex: Two people reading a balance (say
100) and updating it by withdrawing
(Cont.) money (say 50 each) at the same time
• Security problems
• Hard to provide user access to some, but not
all, data

Database systems offer solutions to all the

above problems
 • In this text we will be using a university database
to illustrate all the concepts
• Data consists of information about:
• Students
University • Instructors
• Classes
Database • Application program examples:
• Add new students, instructors, and courses
Example • Register students for courses, and generate
class rosters
• Assign grades to students, compute grade
point averages (GPA) and generate
transcripts
 • A database system is a collection of interrelated
data and a set of programs that allow users to
access and modify these data.
• A major purpose of a database system is to
provide users with an abstract view of the data.
• Data models

View of Data • A collection of conceptual tools for

describing data, data relationships, data
semantics, and consistency constraints.
• Data abstraction
• Hide the complexity of data structures
to represent data in the database from
users through several levels of data
abstraction.
 • A collection of tools for describing
• Data
• Data relationships
• Data semantics
• Data constraints
• Relational model

Data Models • Entity-Relationship data model (mainly for database

design)
• Object-based data models (Object-oriented and Object-
relational)
• Semi-structured data model (XML)
• Other older models:
• Network model
• Hierarchical model
Relational Model
• All the data is stored in various tables.
• Example of tabular data in the relational model
Columns

Rows

Ted Codd
Turing Award 1981
A Sample Relational Database
 • Physical level: describes how a record (e.g.,
instructor) is stored.
• Logical level: describes data stored in database,
and the relationships among the data.
type instructor = record
Levels of ID : string;
name : string;

Abstraction dept_name : string;

salary : integer;
end;
• View level: application programs hide details of
data types. Views can also hide information
(such as an employee’s salary) for security
purposes.
 View of Data
An architecture for a database system
Instances and
Schemas
• Similar to types and variables in programming languages
• Logical Schema – the overall logical structure of the database
• Example: The database consists of information about a
set of customers and accounts in a bank and the
relationship between them
• Analogous to type information of a variable in a
program
• Physical schema – the overall physical structure of the
database
• Instance – the actual content of the database at a particular
point in time
• Analogous to the value of a variable
 • Physical Data Independence – the ability to
modify the physical schema without
changing the logical schema
• Applications depend on the logical
Physical Data schema

Independence • In general, the interfaces between the

various levels and components should
be well defined so that changes in some
parts do not seriously influence others.
 • Specification notation for defining the database schema
Example: create table instructor (
ID char(5),
name varchar(20),
Data dept_name varchar(20),
salary numeric(8,2))

Definition • DDL compiler generates a set of table templates stored in a

data dictionary

Language
• Data dictionary contains metadata (i.e., data about data)
• Database schema

(DDL)
• Integrity constraints
• Primary key (ID uniquely identifies instructors)
• Authorization
• Who can access what
 • Language for accessing and updating the data organized
by the appropriate data model
• DML also known as query language
• There are basically two types of data-manipulation
Data language
• Procedural DML -- require a user to specify what

Manipulation
data are needed and how to get those data.
• Declarative DML -- require a user to specify what
data are needed without specifying how to get

Language those data.

• Declarative DMLs are usually easier to learn and use than

(DML)
are procedural DMLs.
• Declarative DMLs are also referred to as non-procedural
DMLs
• The portion of a DML that involves information retrieval
is called a query language.
 • SQL query language is nonprocedural. A query takes as
input several tables (possibly only one) and always
returns a single table.
• Example to find all instructors in Comp. Sci. dept
select name
from instructor

SQL Query where dept_name = 'Comp. Sci.'

• SQL is NOT a Turing machine equivalent language

Language • To be able to compute complex functions SQL is usually

embedded in some higher-level language
• Application programs generally access databases through
one of
• Language extensions to allow embedded SQL
• Application program interface (e.g., ODBC/JDBC)
which allow SQL queries to be sent to a database
Database Access from
Application Program
• Non-procedural query languages such as SQL are not as powerful as a
universal Turing machine.
• SQL does not support actions such as input from users, output to
displays, or communication over the network.
• Such computations and actions must be written in a host language,
such as C/C++, Java or Python, with embedded SQL queries that access
the data in the database.
• Application programs -- are programs that are used to interact with the
database in this fashion.
Database Design
The process of designing the general structure of the database:

• Logical Design – Deciding on the database schema. Database design

requires that we find a “good” collection of relation schemas.
• Business decision – What attributes should we record in the
database?
• Computer Science decision – What relation schemas should we
have and how should the attributes be distributed among the
various relation schemas?
• Physical Design – Deciding on the physical layout of the database
 • A database system is partitioned into
modules that deal with each of the
responsibilities of the overall system.
• The functional components of a database
Database system can be divided into
• The storage manager,
Engine • The query processor component,
• The transaction management
component.
 • A program module that provides the interface

Storage between the low-level data stored in the

database and the application programs and
queries submitted to the system.
Manager • The storage manager is responsible to the
following tasks:
• Interaction with the OS file manager
• Efficient storing, retrieving and updating of
data
• The storage manager components include:
• Authorization and integrity manager
• Transaction manager
• File manager
• Buffer manager
Storage • The storage manager implements several

Manager data structures as part of the physical

system implementation:

(Cont.) • Data files -- store the database itself

• Data dictionary -- stores metadata
about the structure of the database, in
particular the schema of the database.
• Indices -- can provide fast access to
data items. A database index provides
pointers to those data items that hold a
particular value.
 • The query processor components include:

Query • DDL interpreter -- interprets DDL

statements and records the definitions in

Processor the data dictionary.

• DML compiler -- translates DML statements
in a query language into an evaluation plan
consisting of low-level instructions that the
query evaluation engine understands.
• The DML compiler performs query
optimization; that is, it picks the lowest
cost evaluation plan from among the
various alternatives.
• Query evaluation engine -- executes low-
level instructions generated by the DML
compiler.
 Query Processing
1. Parsing and translation
2. Optimization
3. Evaluation
 • A transaction is a collection of operations
that performs a single logical function in a
database application
Transaction • Transaction-management component
ensures that the database remains in a
Management consistent (correct) state despite system
failures (e.g., power failures and operating
system crashes) and transaction failures.
• Concurrency-control manager controls the
interaction among the concurrent
transactions, to ensure the consistency of
the database.
 • Centralized databases
• One to a few cores, shared memory
• Client-server,
Database • One server machine executes work on behalf of
multiple client machines.
Architecture • Parallel databases
• Many core shared memory
• Shared disk
• Shared nothing
• Distributed databases
• Geographical distribution
• Schema/data heterogeneity
Database
Architecture
(Centralized/Shared-
Memory)
 Database applications are usually partitioned into
two or three parts

• Two-tier architecture -- the application resides

at the client machine, where it invokes database
Database system functionality at the server machine
• Three-tier architecture -- the client machine acts
Applications as a front end and does not contain any direct
database calls.
• The client end communicates with an
application server, usually through a forms
interface.
• The application server in turn communicates
with a database system to access data.
Two-tier and three-tier architectures
Database Users
 A person who has central control over the system
is called a database administrator (DBA).
Functions of a DBA include:
• Schema definition
• Storage structure and access-method definition

Database • Schema and physical-organization modification

• Granting of authorization for data access
Administrator • Routine maintenance
• Periodically backing up the database
• Ensuring that enough free disk space is available
for normal operations, and upgrading disk space
as required
• Monitoring jobs running on the database
 • 1950s and early 1960s:
• Data processing using magnetic tapes for storage
• Tapes provided only sequential access
History of • Punched cards for input

Database • Late 1960s and 1970s:

• Hard disks allowed direct access to data

Systems • Network and hierarchical data models in widespread use

• Ted Codd defines the relational data model
• Would win the ACM Turing Award for this work
• IBM Research begins System R prototype
• UC Berkeley (Michael Stonebraker) begins Ingres
prototype
• Oracle releases first commercial relational database
• High-performance (for the era) transaction processing
 • 1980s:
• Research relational prototypes evolve
into commercial systems
History of • SQL becomes industrial standard
• Parallel and distributed database
Database systems
• Wisconsin, IBM, Teradata

Systems • Object-oriented database systems

• 1990s:
(Cont.) • Large decision support and data-mining
applications
• Large multi-terabyte data warehouses
• Emergence of Web commerce
 • 2000s
History of • Big data storage systems
• Google BigTable, Yahoo PNuts, Amazon,
Database • “NoSQL” systems.
Systems • Big data analysis: beyond SQL
• Map reduce and friends
(Cont.) • 2010s
• SQL reloaded
• SQL front end to Map Reduce systems
• Massively parallel database systems
• Multi-core main-memory databases