Transducers

What is a TRANSDUCER?

A transducer is a device that converts energy from one form to

another.  A device that converts variations in a physical quantity,
such as pressure or brightness, into an electrical signal, or vice
versa.
 • The transducer consists of a primary element (sensor) plus a
secondary element (signal conditioning circuit) that transforms the
passive change or small voltage signal into active signal range that
can be easily used in other chains of the control loop.

Passive
Element
Physical Variable
Change Sensor Change as
ΔR or ΔL or
ΔC

Active
Physical Variable Signal
Change Transducer Change as
ΔV or ΔI
 What is a transducer?
• Example: With a resistance thermometer, the resistance depends
on the temperature value (sensor). It can be inserted into a bridge
circuit (secondary element) in order to transform the change in the
resistance value to a change in the voltage output. Finally, the
output voltage from the bridge circuit express about the
temperature change value. In general, we can say that:

Transducer = Sensor + Signal conditioning circuit

Resistance change
due to Temperature
Bridge Change
Temperature Variation Circuit in Voltage
 Temperature sensors and transducers
• Temperature measurement
There are two basic categories either to use
mechanical properties (expansion of a substance) or
to use electrical properties to operate.

Using mechanical properties

1) Capillary tube thermometer
The element mercury is a liquid in the temperature
range of -38.9° C to 356.7° C As a liquid, mercury
expands (moves) as it gets warmer, its expansion
rate is linear and can be accurately calibrated.
The mercury-in-glass thermometer illustrated in the
above figure contains a bulb filled with mercury that
is allowed to expand into a capillary tube. Its rate of
expansion is calibrated on the glass scale. Mercury
can be replaced by alcohol for low temperature
measurement.
 Temperature sensors and transducers
2) Filled thermal system
The device consists of a bulb
filled with expanding substance
connected to a Bourdon tube
mechanism via a capillary tube
(≈30m long) as shown in figure.
The pressure inside the bulb
changes as the temperature
changes. Consequently, the
pressure moves the pointer at
the moving end of Bourdon tube.
This movement is marked using
the temperature scale.
 Temperature sensors and transducers
3) Bimetallic thermometers
This type of temperature sensor
has the characteristics of being
relatively inaccurate, having
hysteresis, having relatively slow time
of response. This sensor consists of
two materials (metals) with gross
different expansion coefficients and
bonded together. Therefore, the
temperature will make each metal to
expand with a different length.
Consequently, this effect can be used
to close switch contacts or to actuate
an on/off mechanism when
temperature increases to some
operating set point.
 Temperature sensors and transducers
• Using electrical properties
1) Resistance Thermal Detectors (RTDs)
It is a temperature sensor that is based on a metal
resistance increasing with temperature. Metals used in
these devices vary from platinum, which is very
repeatable, quite sensitive, and very expensive, to
nickel, which is not quite as repeatable, more sensitive,
and less expensive.

R(T) = R(To )[1+ αo Δ T] ; T1 < T < T2

Where: R(T) = approximation of resistance at temperature T
R(To) = resistance at temperature To
ΔT = T- To
αO = fractional change in resistance per degree of temperature at To

RTDs Properties:
• Range of measurement, platinum (- 100°C - 650°C), 70%
nickel-30% iron (-180°C -300°C). Normally, it can be used
for medium range measurements.
• Response time, (0.5 seconds -5 seconds)
• Sensitivity, (platinum 0.004 /Ω°C -nickel 0.005 /Ω°C)
 Temperature sensors and transducers
2) Thermistors
The name thermistor is derived from
thermally sensitive resistor, sense the
resistance of a thermistor varies as a
function of temperature.
It is an electrical device made of a solid
semiconductor with a high temperature
sensitivity.
Thermistor Properties:
• Range of measurement, maximum up to
300oC to avoid melting of semiconductor
materials. Normally, it can be used for low
temperature range measurements.
• Response time, (0.5 seconds or faster)
• Sensitivity, (highly sensitive, it can be
changed by 1 KΩ for change in 1 oC)
3) Thermocouples
The thermocouple is used widely especially in large range of temperature
measurement applications.
Seebeck effect
As early as 1821, Seebeck found that bonding wires of two dissimilar metals
together to form a closed circuit caused an electric current to flow in the circuit
whenever a difference in temperature was imposed between the end junctions.
The output voltage from the thermocouple can be presented as:
Temperature sensors and transducers
Thermocouple consists of two different materials such as:
• J-type, Iron and Constantan, measurement range ( -190°C to 760°C)
• K-type, Chromel and Alumel, measurement range (-190°C to 1260°C)
• T-type, Constantan and Copper, measurement range (-200°C to 371°C)
• E-type, Chromel and Constantan, measurement range (-100°C to 1260°C)
• S-type, 90%platinum+10% rhodium and platinum, measurement range (0°C
to 1482°C)
• R-type, 87%platinum+13% rhodium and platinum, measurement range (0°C
to 1482°C)
Temperature sensors and transducers
Typical thermocouple response as the temperature increases.

For each type of

thermocouple there is
standard table that to obtain
the output voltage (mV)
against the measured
junction temperature where
the reference junction at 0°C
 Temperature sensors and transducers
Thermocouple Properties:
• Range of measurement, it can be used for large
• Response time, it depends to the thermal contact environment. In a good
thermal contact from 10 to 20 ms. In poor thermal contact from 10 to 20
seconds.
• Sensitivity, (J-type 0.05 mV /oC , R-type 0.006 mV/oC).

Signal conditioning:
• The output from a thermocouple is in mV. This means that considerable
amplification will be necessary for a practical application. In addition, the
small signal levels make the devices susceptible to electrical noise. In most
cases the thermocouple is used with a high gain differential amplifier.
 Temperature sensors and transducers
In some applications, a group of thermocouples are
connected in series so that there are perhaps ten or more
hot junctions sensing the temperature. The e.m.f. produced
by each is added together. Such arrangement is known as
a thermopile.
Temperature sensors can be immersed into a moving
fluid to measure its temperature. Therefore, a protective
shield for a temperature measuring device is necessary,
which penetrates into the flow of the fluid being measured
(thermowell)
 Displacement sensors

• Displacement sensors are widely used not only to measure the

distance of a moving object but also it can be embedded in other
sensors or transducer devices to measure pressure or level or
flow.
Different types of mechanical sensors can be considered such as:
1- Potentiometer types:
2- Capacitive and inductive types
3- Variable reluctance types (LVDT)
4- Strain gauges
Potentiometer types
The simplest type of displacement sensor
involves the action of displacement in moving
the wiper of a potentiometer. This device then
converts linear or angular motion into change
of resistance. Then, a signal conditioning
circuit converts the change in resistance
value into voltage change.

This sensor suffers from the following

drawbacks:
• Limited resolution
• Friction in the wiper
• High electric noise
Capacitive and Inductive Types
Linear Variable Differential Transformer
In this type, the moving core changes the magnetic flux coupling
between two or more coils (Variable reluctance ).
A Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) is an electro
mechanical device that produces an output proportional to
displacement.
LVDTs offer many distinct advantages over other displacement
measurement devices including: frictionless movement, infinite
resolution, null repeatability, temperature stability, and environmental
ruggedness.
LVDTs can measure displacements from a few microns to several
feet in a wide variety of environments.
An LVDT operates on the principle of magnetic coupling
between a primary and two secondary windings. The
primary coil is typically energized with a 2-5 Volt sine
wave with frequencies between 2-10 kHz. The primary
winding produces a magnetic field that passes through
the two secondary windings. A magnetically permeable
metal core (Ni-Ir) slides through the center of the coils
and provides an efficient path for the magnetic flux. The
amount of voltage induced in the secondary windings
varies with the core's position.
 Displacement sensors
In ratiometric signal conditioning, both the voltage on coil A and coil B are used to determine the position
of the core.

The following equation is computed by the ratiometric signal conditioner to determine the position where G is
the gain or sensitivity.
Strain Gauges
A strain gauge is a thin metal foil that changes resistance with applied strain.
Strain gauges are the preferred choice in stress analysis due to their small size
and relatively low cost. Strain gauges can measure strain levels from a few
micro-strain (μe) to over 100,000 micro-strain. When used in conjunction with a
precision signal conditioner, accurate strain measurements are possible.

The metal foil strain gauge is one of the most common methods used to
measure the stress in materials. Since stress cannot be measured directly, it
must be determined from other measurable parameters.

Typically, the strain (e=ΔL/L) of the material is measured through the use of a
strain gauge. The stress (σ= force/area) is computed based on known material
properties (e.g., knowing the modulus of elasticity E and assuming Hook's Law
σ= Ee).
 A metal foil gauge measures the strain in a material based on the
assumptions that the gauge will deform perfectly with the material and that
the gauge resistance will change linearly with applied strain.

The resistance of a strain gauge is given by:

When a gauge is stretched, all three variables will change. By

measuring the gage resistance and knowing the relationship between
gage resistance and gauge strain, one can compute the strain level in the
strain gage and theoretically in the test specimen.

In general, a gauge factor (GF) is defined to be the average ratio of the

resistance change to length change (strain) of the gauge.
 Displacement sensors

The higher the number, the more sensitive is the

gauge. Typical values for modern metallic strain
gauges (copper-nickel alloy) are around 2. The gauge
factor incorporates the change in resistance due to
dimensional stretching and due to the change in
resistivity (p) with strain.
Forces (weights) applied to a known area can also
be measured using strain gauges (Load cell).
 Strain Gauge Signal
Conditioning
The changes of
resistance associated
with strain gauges are
small and present
measurement situation. A
Wheatstone bridge
arrangement is commonly
used to measure the
small changes in
resistance associated
with strain gauges.
 Pressure sensors
The measurement and control of fluid (liquid or gas) pressure has to
be one of the most common in all the process industries. Pressure is
the force per unit area that a fluid exerts on its surroundings.
Pressure sensors all operate on the basis of the same principle: the
detection of a physical force which arises due to pressure.

Static pressure is the pressure where no motion is occurring on the

liquid. Its value increases as the liquid head in the tank increases.
Dynamic pressure is the pressure that it exerts on its surroundings
while the fluid is in motion. Its value increases as the liquid velocity
increases.
 In many cases, the absolute pressure is not the quantity of major
interest in describing the pressure. The atmosphere of gas that
surrounds the earth exerts a pressure, because of its weight, at the
surface of the earth of approximately 14.7 psi.
If a closed vessel at the earth‘s surface contained a gas at an
absolute pressure of 14.7 psi, then it would exert no effective pressure
on the walls of the container because the atmospheric gas exerts the
same pressure from the outside.
In this case, it is more appropriate to describe the pressure in a
relative sense that is compared to atmospheric pressure. This is called
gauge pressure and is given by:
 Pressure sensors
A very common and relatively
inexpensive measurement
approach involves the
measurement of the capacitance
between the diaphragm and a
fixed electrode.
Motion of the diaphragm
towards the fixed electrode
increases the device capacitance
as the pressure increases.
Pressure sensors
Another approach to
produce the displacement
is to use a bellow as
shown in figure.
Then, the LVDT device
will convert the bellow
motion into output voltage
signal that express about
the pressure value.
 Pressure sensors
Manometers
Manometers measure a pressure
difference by balancing the
weight of a fluid column between
the two pressures of interest.
Large pressure differences are
measured with heavy fluids, such
as mercury (e.g. 760 mm Hg = 1
atmosphere). Small pressure
differences, are measured by
lighter fluids such as water (27.7
inch H2O = 1 psi; 1 cm H2O =
98.1 Pa).
Flow transducers
Flow is related to pressure by causing the flowing fluid to pass through some form of
restriction in the transport pipe, which creates a momentary loss of pressure. This
pressure differential is related mathematically to the flow rate.
Flow transducers
The D/P cell is a device to measure the differential pressure between two points. The
output signal from this device is proportional to the squared value of the measured flow. A
square root extractor can be used to obtain a linear relation between the flow and the
measure signal as shown in figure.
Flow transducers
Magnetic flow meter
It can be shown that if charged particles move across a magnetic field, a potential is
established across the flow, perpendicular to the magnetic field. Thus, if the flowing liquid is also a
conductor of electricity (not necessary to be highly good conductor), the flow can be measured by
allowing the liquid to flow through a magnetic field and measuring the transverse potential produced.
The pipe section in which this measurement is made must be insulated and a nonconductor
itself, or the potential produced will be canceled by currents in the pipe. The polarity of the
measured voltage can indicate the direction of the flow. This device produces an electrical signal
directly and is convenient for process control applications involving conducting fluid flow.
 Flow transducers
Rotameter
In a rotameter, the obstruction is a
float that rises in a vertical tapered
column. The distance to which the
float rises in column is proportional
to the flow rate.
The lifting force is produced by the
differential pressure that exists
across the float, because it is a
restriction in the flow.
 Flow transducers
Turbine type
A turbine type flow meter
is composed of a freely
spinning turbine blade
assembly in the flow path.
The rate of rotation of the
turbine is proportional to
the flow rate.
If the turbine is attached
to a tachometer, a
convenient electrical
signal can be produced.
 Level Transducers
In many processes involving liquids contained in vessels, such as distillation columns,
evaporators, and mixed tanks, the particular level of liquid in each vessel can be of great
importance in process operation. Thus a continuous measurement of level is required.

Float type
In a ball float design, a
physical hollow ball floats on a
liquid and is referred to as a
datum point, provides a direct
means of level measurement.
Level Transducers
Discrete points method
In this method, an array of
limit switches is mounted in a
one side of the tank. As level
increases the contact points
that produce ON state
increases. Consequently, the
output voltage from the
signal conditioning circuit is
proportional to the level
value.
Level Transducers
Capacitance method
In this method, two concentric cylinders are contained in a
liquid. The level of the liquid partially occupies the space
between the cylinders, with air in the remaining part.
This device acts like two capacitors in parallel, one with the
dielectric constant of air (≈1) and the other with that of the
liquid. Thus, variation of liquid level causes variation of the
electrical capacity measured between the cylinders.
Level Transducers
Capacitance method
Example:
The level of ethyl alcohol is to be measured from 0 to 5 m using a capacitive system.
The following specifications define the system:
• For ethyl alcohol: K = 26 ; for air K=1
• Cylinder separation d=0.5 cm
• Average radius R= 5.75 cm
• Distance along cylinder axis is L
a) Find the range of capacity variation as the alcohol level varies from 0 to 5 m.
b) Compute the level value, if the measured capacitance is 50 nF (nano Farad).
Level Transducers
Capacitance method
Example:
The level of ethyl alcohol is to be measured fro 0 to 5 m using a capacitive system.
The following specifications define the system:
• For ethyl alcohol: K = 26 ; for air K=1
• Cylinder separation d=0.5 cm
• Average radius R= 5.75 cm
• Distance along cylinder axis is L
a) Find the range of capacity variation as the alcohol level varies from 0 to 5 m.
b) Compute the level value, if the measured capacitance is 50 nF (nano Farad).
Level Transducers
Solution:
A= 2 π R L = 2 (3.14) (0.0575 m) (5 m) = 1.806 m2
Thus, for air
C = 1 (8.85 pF/m) (1.806 m2)/ (0.005 m) = 3196 pF ≈ 0.0032 μF
With ethyl alcohol, the capacity becomes
C = 26 (0.0032 pF) = 0.0832 μF
The range is 0.0032 to 0.0832 μF

The measured capacitance is the equivalent of two capacitances in parallel (air and alcohol). Thus, we have
• CTotal = Cair + Calcohol
• 50 nF = {(8.85 pF/m) (2) (3.14) (0.0575)(5-H)/0.005} +
{26 (8.85 pF/m)(2) (3.14) (0.0575)(H)/0.005}
where H is the liquid level. So, H= 2.93 m
Level Transducers
Head pressure method
In this method, the D/P cell measures the differential pressure between the deepest
point in the tank and either the atmospheric pressure (open tank) or the upper point in the
tank (closed vessel) as shown in figure.

The output signal is proportional with the squared value of the level.
 Level Transducers
Ultrasonic method
Sonic and ultrasonic technology has been applied to the
problem of level measurement of liquids and bulk solids
for many years. The use of ultrasonic reflection to
measure level is favored because it is a "noninvasive"
technique; that is, it does not involve placing anything in
the material. The measurement depends on the length
of time taken for reflections of an ultrasonic pulse from
the surface of the material.