Anatomy and Physiology of RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The Respiratory System
Anatomy
Respiratory System 1
Respiratory System
Figure 22.1
Respiratory System
 Consists of the respiratory and conducting zones
 Respiratory zone
 Site of gas exchange
 Consists of bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli
Respiratory System
 Conducting zone
 Provides rigid conduits for air to reach the sites of
gas exchange
 Includes all other respiratory structures (e.g., nose,
nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea)
 Respiratory muscles – diaphragm and other muscles
that promote ventilation
Major Functions of the Respiratory System
 To supply the body with oxygen and dispose of

carbon dioxide
 Respiration – four distinct processes must happen
 Pulmonary ventilation – moving air into and out of
the lungs
 External respiration – gas exchange between the
lungs and the blood
Major Functions of the Respiratory System
 Transport – transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide

between the lungs and tissues
 Internal respiration – gas exchange between
systemic blood vessels and tissues
Function of the Nose
 The only externally visible part of the respiratory
system that functions by:
 Providing an airway for respiration
 Moistening (humidifying) and warming the

entering air
 Filtering inspired air and cleaning it of foreign
matter
 Serving as a resonating chamber for speech
 Housing the olfactory receptors

Structure of the Nose
 The nose is divided into two regions

 The external nose, including the root, bridge,
dorsum nasi, and apex
 The internal nasal cavity
Figure 22.2a
Figure
10
22.2b
Respiratory System
Nasal Cavity
Figure
11
22.3b
Respiratory System
Nasal Cavity
 Inspired air is:

 Humidified by the high water content in the nasal
cavity
 Warmed by rich plexuses of capillaries
 Ciliated mucosal cells remove contaminated mucus
Functions of the Nasal Mucosa
 During inhalation the nasal mucosa:

 Filter, heat, and moisten air
 During exhalation these structures:

 Reclaim heat and moisture
 Minimize heat and moisture loss
Paranasal Sinuses
 Sinuses in bones that surround the nasal cavity
 Sinuses lighten the skull and help to warm and

moisten the air
Pharynx
 Funnel-shaped tube of skeletal muscle that connects

to the:
 Nasal cavity and mouth superiorly
 Larynx and esophagus inferiorly
 Extends from the base of the skull to the level of the

sixth cervical vertebra
Pharynx
 It is divided into three regions

 Nasopharynx
 Oropharynx
 Laryngopharynx
Larynx (Voice Box)
 Attaches to the hyoid bone and opens into the

laryngopharynx superiorly
 Continuous with the trachea posteriorly
 The three functions of the larynx are:

 To provide a patent airway
 To act as a switching mechanism to route air and

food into the proper channels
 To function in voice production
Framework of the Larynx
Figure1822.4a, b
Respiratory System
Trachea
 Flexible and mobile tube extending from the larynx

into the mediastinum
 Composed of three layers
 Mucosa – made up of goblet cells and ciliated
epithelium
 Submucosa – connective tissue deep to the mucosa
 Adventitia – outermost layer made of C-shaped

rings of hyaline cartilage
Trachea
Figure
20
22.6a
Respiratory System
Conducting Zone: Bronchi
 The carina of the last tracheal cartilage marks the

end of the trachea and the beginning of the right and
left bronchi
 Air reaching the bronchi is:
 Warm and cleansed of impurities
 Saturated with water vapor
 Bronchi subdivide into secondary bronchi, each
supplying a lobe of the lungs
Respiratory Zone
 Defined by the presence of alveoli; begins as
terminal bronchioles feed into respiratory
bronchioles
 Respiratory bronchioles lead to alveolar ducts, then
to terminal clusters of alveolar sacs composed of
alveoli
 Approximately 300 million alveoli:
 Account for most of the lungs’ volume
 Provide tremendous surface area for gas exchange

Respiratory Zone
Figure
23
22.8a
Respiratory System
Respiratory Zone
Figure
24
22.8b
Respiratory System
Alveoli
 Surrounded by fine elastic fibers
 Contain open pores that:

 Connect adjacent alveoli
 Allow air pressure throughout the lung to be

equalized
 House macrophages that keep alveolar surfaces

sterile
Respiratory Membrane
Figure 22.9b
Respiratory Membrane
Figure2722.9.c, d
Respiratory System
Gross Anatomy of the Lungs
 Lungs occupy all of the thoracic cavity except the
mediastinum
 Root – site of vascular and bronchial attachments
 Costal surface – anterior, lateral, and posterior

surfaces in contact with the ribs
 Apex – narrow superior tip
 Base – inferior surface that rests on the diaphragm
 Hilus – indentation that contains pulmonary and

systemic blood vessels
Lungs
 Cardiac notch (impression) – cavity that

accommodates the heart
 Left lung – separated into upper and lower lobes by
the oblique fissure
 Right lung – separated into three lobes by the
oblique and horizontal fissures
 There are 10 bronchopulmonary segments in each
lung
Gross Anatomy of Lungs
 Base, apex (cupula), costal surface, cardiac notch
 Oblique & horizontal fissure in right lung results in 3 lobes
 Oblique fissure only in left lung produces 2 lobes
Mediastinal Surface of Lungs
 Blood vessels & airways enter lungs at hilus
 Forms root of lungs
 Covered with pleura (parietal becomes visceral)
Blood Supply to Lungs
 Lungs are perfused by two circulations: pulmonary

and bronchial
 Pulmonary arteries – supply systemic venous blood
to be oxygenated
 Pulmonary veins – carry oxygenated blood from
respiratory zones to the heart
Blood Supply to Lungs
 Bronchial arteries – provide systemic blood to the

lung tissue
 Arise from aorta and enter the lungs at the hilus
 Supply all lung tissue except the alveoli
 Bronchial veins anastomose with pulmonary veins
 Pulmonary veins carry most venous blood back to

the heart
Pleurae
 Thin, double-layered serosa
 Parietal pleura
 Covers the thoracic wall and superior face of the
diaphragm
 Continues around heart and between lungs
Pleurae
 Visceral, or pulmonary, pleura

 Covers the external lung surface
 Divides the thoracic cavity into three chambers
 The central mediastinum
 Two lateral compartments, each containing a

lung
Breathing
 Breathing, or pulmonary ventilation, consists of two

phases
 Inspiration – air flows into the lungs
 Expiration – gases exit the lungs
Inspiration
 The diaphragm and external intercostal muscles

(inspiratory muscles) contract and the rib cage rises
 The lungs are stretched and intrapulmonary volume
increases
 Intrapulmonary pressure drops below atmospheric
pressure (1 mm Hg)
 Air flows into the lungs, down its pressure gradient,
until intrapleural pressure = atmospheric pressure
Inspiration
Figure
38
22.13.1
Respiratory System
Expiration
 Inspiratory muscles relax and the rib cage descends
due to gravity
 Thoracic cavity volume decreases
 Elastic lungs recoil passively and intrapulmonary

volume decreases
 Intrapulmonary pressure rises above atmospheric
pressure (+1 mm Hg)
 Gases flow out of the lungs down the pressure
gradient until intrapulmonary pressure is 0
Expiration
Figure 22.13.2
The Respiratory System
Physiology
Respiratory Volumes
 Tidal volume (TV) – air that moves into and out of
the lungs with each breath (approximately 500 ml)
 Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) – air that can be
inspired forcibly beyond the tidal volume (2100–
3200 ml)
 Expiratory reserve volume (ERV) – air that can be
evacuated from the lungs after a tidal expiration
(1000–1200 ml)
 Residual volume (RV) – air left in the lungs after
strenuous expiration (1200 ml)
Respiratory Capacities
 Inspiratory capacity (IC) – total amount of air that

can be inspired after a tidal expiration (IRV + TV)
 Functional residual capacity (FRC) – amount of air
remaining in the lungs after a tidal expiration
(RV + ERV)
 Vital capacity (VC) – the total amount of
exchangeable air (TV + IRV + ERV)
 Total lung capacity (TLC) – sum of all lung volumes
(approximately 6000 ml in males)
Dead Space
 Anatomical dead space – volume of the conducting

respiratory passages (150 ml)
 Alveolar dead space – alveoli that cease to act in gas
exchange due to collapse or obstruction
 Total dead space – sum of alveolar and anatomical
dead spaces
Pulmonary Function Tests
 Spirometer – an instrument consisting of a hollow

bell inverted over water, used to evaluate respiratory
function
 Spirometry can distinguish between:
 Obstructive pulmonary disease – increased airway
resistance
 Restrictive disorders – reduction in total lung
capacity from structural or functional lung changes
 Total ventilation – total amount of gas flow into or

out of the respiratory tract in one minute
 Forced vital capacity (FVC) – gas forcibly expelled
after taking a deep breath
 Forced expiratory volume (FEV) – the amount of
gas expelled during specific time intervals of the
FVC
 Increases in TLC, FRC, and RV may occur as a

result of obstructive disease
 Reduction in VC, TLC, FRC, and RV result from
restrictive disease
Alveolar Ventilation
 Alveolar ventilation rate (AVR) – measures the flow

of fresh gases into and out of the alveoli during a
particular time
AVR = frequency X (TV – dead space)
(ml/min) (breaths/min) (ml/breath)
 Slow, deep breathing increases AVR and rapid,

shallow breathing decreases AVR
Nonrespiratory Air Movements
 Most result from reflex action
 Examples include: coughing, sneezing, crying,

laughing,and yawning
Basic Properties of Gases:
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures
 Total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is the

sum of the pressures exerted independently by each
gas in the mixture
 The partial pressure of each gas is directly
proportional to its percentage in the mixture
What is Composition of Air?
 Air = 21% O2, 78% N2 and .04% CO2
 Alveolar air = 14% O2, 78% N2 and 5.2% CO2
 Expired air = 16% O2, 78% N2 and 4.5% CO2
 Observations
 alveolar air has less O2 since absorbed by blood
 mystery-----expired air has more O2 & less CO2 than

alveolar air?
Composition of Alveolar Gas
 The atmosphere is mostly oxygen and nitrogen,
while alveoli contain more carbon dioxide and water
vapor
 These differences result from:
 Gas exchanges in the lungs – oxygen diffuses from
the alveoli and carbon dioxide diffuses into the
alveoli
 Humidification of air by conducting passages
 The mixing of alveolar gas that occurs with each
breath
Oxygen Transport
 Molecular oxygen is carried in the blood:

 Bound to hemoglobin (Hb) within red blood cells
 Dissolved in plasma
Oxygen Transport: Role of Hemoglobin
 Each Hb molecule binds four oxygen atoms in a
rapid and reversible process
 The hemoglobin-oxygen combination is called
oxyhemoglobin (HbO2)
 Hemoglobin that has released oxygen is called

reduced hemoglobin (HHb)
Lungs
HHb + O2 HbO2 + H+
Tissues
Hemoglobin (Hb)
 Saturated hemoglobin – when all four hemes of the

molecule are bound to oxygen
 Partially saturated hemoglobin – when one to three
hemes are bound to oxygen
Control of Respiration:
Medullary Respiratory Centers
 The dorsal respiratory group (DRG), or inspiratory

center:
 Is located near the root of nerve IX
 Appears to be the pacesetting respiratory center
 Excites the inspiratory muscles and sets eupnea
(12-15 breaths/minute)
 The ventral respiratory group (VRG) is involved in
forced inspiration and expiration
Figure
58
22.24
Respiratory System
Pons Respiratory Centers
 Pons centers:
 Influence and modify activity of the medullary
centers
 Smooth out inspiration and expiration transitions
and vice versa
Depth and Rate of Breathing
 Inspiratory depth is determined by how actively the

respiratory center stimulates the respiratory muscles
 Rate of respiration is determined by how long the
inspiratory center is active
 Respiratory centers in the pons and medulla are
sensitive to both excitatory and inhibitory stimuli
Figure
61
22.25
Respiratory System
Depth and Rate of Breathing: PCO2
 Hyperventilation – increased depth and rate of

breathing that:
 Quickly flushes carbon dioxide from the blood
 Occurs in response to hypercapnia
Respiratory Adjustments: Exercise
 Respiratory adjustments are geared to both the
intensity and duration of exercise
 During vigorous exercise:
 Ventilation can increase 20 fold
 Breathing becomes deeper and more vigorous, but
respiratory rate may not be significantly changed
(hyperpnea)
 Exercise-enhanced breathing is not prompted by an
increase in PCO2 or a decrease in PO2 or pH
 These levels remain surprisingly constant during
exercise
 As exercise begins:
 Ventilation increases abruptly, rises slowly, and
reaches a steady state
 When exercise stops:

 Ventilation declines suddenly, then gradually
decreases to normal
 Neural factors bring about the above changes,

including:
 Psychic stimuli
 Cortical motor activation
 Excitatory impulses from proprioceptors in muscles
Respiratory Adjustments: High Altitude
 The body responds to quick movement to high

altitude (above 8000 ft) with symptoms of acute
mountain sickness – headache, shortness of breath,
nausea, and dizziness
Developmental Aspects
 Olfactory placodes invaginate into olfactory pits by
the 4th week
 Laryngotracheal buds are present by the 5th week
 Mucosae of the bronchi and lung alveoli are present
by the 8th week
 By the 28th week, a baby born prematurely can
breathe on its own
 During fetal life, the lungs are filled with fluid and
blood bypasses the lungs
 Gas exchange takes place via the placenta
Respiratory System Development
Figure 22.29
Developmental Aspects
 At birth, respiratory centers are activated, alveoli

inflate, and lungs begin to function
 Respiratory rate is highest in newborns and slows
until adulthood
 Lungs continue to mature and more alveoli are
formed until young adulthood
 Respiratory efficiency decreases in old age
Smokers Lowered Respiratory Efficiency
Smoker is easily “winded” with moderate exercise

 nicotine constricts terminal bronchioles
 carbon monoxide in smoke binds to hemoglobin
 irritants in smoke cause excess mucus secretion

 irritants inhibit movements of cilia
 in time destroys elastic fibers in lungs & leads to emphysema
 trapping of air in alveoli & reduced gas exchange
Every thirteen seconds someone dies from a smoking-related disease.


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The Respiratory System

 Consists of the respiratory and conducting zones

 Consists of bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli

 To supply the body with oxygen and dispose of

 Transport – transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide

 Moistening (humidifying) and warming the

 Housing the olfactory receptors

 The nose is divided into two regions

 Inspired air is:

 Ciliated mucosal cells remove contaminated mucus

 During inhalation the nasal mucosa:

 During exhalation these structures:

 Minimize heat and moisture loss

 Sinuses in bones that surround the nasal cavity

 Sinuses lighten the skull and help to warm and

 Funnel-shaped tube of skeletal muscle that connects

 Larynx and esophagus inferiorly

 Extends from the base of the skull to the level of the

 It is divided into three regions

 Attaches to the hyoid bone and opens into the

 The three functions of the larynx are:

 To act as a switching mechanism to route air and

 Flexible and mobile tube extending from the larynx

 Adventitia – outermost layer made of C-shaped

 The carina of the last tracheal cartilage marks the

 Provide tremendous surface area for gas exchange

 Surrounded by fine elastic fibers

 Contain open pores that:

 Allow air pressure throughout the lung to be

 House macrophages that keep alveolar surfaces

 Costal surface – anterior, lateral, and posterior

 Base – inferior surface that rests on the diaphragm

 Hilus – indentation that contains pulmonary and

 Cardiac notch (impression) – cavity that

 Forms root of lungs

 Covered with pleura (parietal becomes visceral)

 Lungs are perfused by two circulations: pulmonary

 Bronchial arteries – provide systemic blood to the

 Supply all lung tissue except the alveoli

 Bronchial veins anastomose with pulmonary veins

 Pulmonary veins carry most venous blood back to

 Thin, double-layered serosa

 Visceral, or pulmonary, pleura

 Divides the thoracic cavity into three chambers

 The central mediastinum

 Two lateral compartments, each containing a

 Breathing, or pulmonary ventilation, consists of two

 Expiration – gases exit the lungs

 The diaphragm and external intercostal muscles

 Elastic lungs recoil passively and intrapulmonary

 Inspiratory capacity (IC) – total amount of air that

 Anatomical dead space – volume of the conducting

 Spirometer – an instrument consisting of a hollow

 Total ventilation – total amount of gas flow into or

 Increases in TLC, FRC, and RV may occur as a

 Alveolar ventilation rate (AVR) – measures the flow

AVR = frequency X (TV – dead space)

(ml/min) (breaths/min) (ml/breath)