SETS OF AXIOMS AND FINITE GEOMETRIES

Compiled:
Still John F. Reyes
FINITE GEOMETRIES OF FANO AND PAPPUS

• The original finite geometry of Gino Fano

was a three-dimensional geometry, but the
cross section formed by a plane passing
through his configuration yields a plane finite
geometry, also called Fano’s geometry.
Axioms for Fano’s Geometry
1. There exists at least one line.
2. Every line of the geometry has exactly three
points on it.
3. Not all points of the geometry are on the
same line.
4. For two distinct points, there exists exactly
one line on both of them.
5. Each two lines have at least one point in
common.
• Point and line are undefined.
• In finite geometries as well as in ordinary
Euclidean geometry, various expressions can
be used for the same idea. For example, all
of these state the same relationship:
A point is on a line.
The line contains the point.
The line goes through the point.
• THEOREM 1.7. Each two lines have exactly
one point in common.
Proof:
By Axiom 5, two lines have at least one point in
common. The assumption that they have two
distinct points in common violates Axiom 4,
because then the two distinct points would have
two lines containing both of them.
• THEOREM 1.8. Fano’s geometry consists of
exactly seven points and seven lines.
Proof:
From Axioms 1 and 2, there are at least three
points in the geometry, while from Axiom 3
there is at least a fourth point, as symbolized in
Figure (a). By Axiom 4, there must be lines
joining this fourth point and each of the existing
points (Figure b), and by Axioms 4 and 5, there
must be lines joining points 1, 6, 7, points 3, 6,
5, and points 5, 2, 7 (Figure c). Thus the
geometry of Fano contains at least seven
points and seven lines.
Assume that there is an eighth point, and
consider for example the intersection of the line
through points 1, 8 and the line 3, 7, 4. (The
notation “line 3, 7, 4” means the line containing
points 3, 7, and 4). Axiom 5 requires that lines
1, 8 and 3, 7, 4 have a point of intersection.
The point of intersection required by Axiom 5
cannot be point 3, 7, or 4, since that would
violate Axiom 4. Thus, it must be a ninth point,
but that violates Axiom 2. The assumption of an
eighth point has led to a contradiction and must
be rejected.
• Consider a rewriting of the set of axioms for
Fano’s geometry with the word point replaced
by student and the word line by committee.
• The concept of parallelism is not in evidence
in Fano’s geometry, since each pair of lines
has a point in common.
• On the other hand, it would be quite possible
to give a new interpretation of parallel for this
finite geometry so that the concept could be
considered in a way quite different from that
used in Euclidean geometry.
• For example, suppose (using Figure c) that
any two lines intersecting on line 4, 7, 3 are
called parallel in Fano’s geometry.
• Then lines 5, 2, 7 and 1, 6, 7, for example,
are parallel in this interpretation, since they
have point 7 on line 4, 7, 3 in common.
• A Euclidean-geometry theorem called the
Theorem of Pappus was discovered and
proved by Pappus of Alexandria about 340
A.D.
• The lines in this theorem are considered to
be the same as lines in ordinary Euclidean
geometry.
• THEOREM 1.9. Theorem of Pappus: If A, B,
and C are three distinct points on one line
and if A’, B’, and C’ are three different distinct
points on a second line, then the
intersections of AC’ and CA’, AB’ and BA’ ,
and BC’ and CB’ are collinear.
• Points are called collinear if they lie on the
same line.
• It is assumed here that the lines intersect as
required in real points.
• The theorem of Pappus is seen to involve
nine distinct points, lying by threes on three
lines.
• There are nine points and nine lines in the
figure.
Axioms for Finite Geometry of Pappus
1. There exists at least one line.
2. Every line has exactly three points.
3. Not all points are on the same line.
4. There exists exactly one line through a point
not on a line that is parallel to the given line.
5. If P is a point not on a line, there exists
exactly one point P’ on the line such that no
line joins P and P’.
6. With the exception in Axiom 5, if P and Q
are distinct points, then exactly one line
contains both of them.
• THEOREM 1.10. Each point in the geometry
of Pappus lies on exactly three lines.
DO WORKSHEET 3
FINITE GEOMETRY OF DESARGUES
• A study of a famous set of points from
Euclidean geometry is the finite geometry of
Girard Desargues.
• Triangles ABC and A’B’C’ of the figure are
perspective from point P. This means that
point P is the common point (the point of
concurrency) of the three lines joining
corresponding vertices. Thus, P lies on AA’,
BB’ and CC’.
• Two triangles perspective from a point are
also perspective from a line.
• If triangles are perspective from a line,
corresponding sides of the triangles meet at
points on this line.
• The line of perspectivity in the figure contains
points R, S, T. For example, corresponding
sides AB and A’B’ meet at T, a point on this
line.
• The figure shows a total of ten labeled points
on ten lines, with three points on each line
and three lines on each point.
• These ten points and ten lines are the
elements in the finite geometry of Desargues.
• A method of setting up a correspondence
between points and lines is needed.
• If a point is the point of perspectivity for two
triangles, and if a line is the line of
perspectivity for the same two triangles, then
the point is called the pole of the line and the
line is called the polar of the point.
• In the finite geometry of Desargues, no line
joins a pole and a point on a polar.
• This fact leads to the formal definitions:
1. The line l in the finite geometry of
Desargues is a polar of the point P if there is
no line connecting P and a point on l.
2. The point P in the finite geometry of
Desargues is a pole of the line l if there is no
point common to l and any line on P.
• For example, if point T is taken as the pole,
where are the polars? Consider the lines
through T and noting that there is exactly one
line in the figure that has no points in
common with these lines. That line is PC’,
hence PC’ is the polar.
Axioms for the Finite Geometry of Desargues
1. There exists at least one point.
2. Each point has at least one polar.
3. Every line has at most one pole.
4. Two distinct points are on at most one line.
5. Every line has at least three distinct points
on it.
6. If a line does not contain a certain point,
then there is a point on both the line and any
polar of the point.
• THEOREM 1.11. Every line of the geometry
of Desargues has exactly one pole.

• THEOREM 1.12. Every point of the geometry

of Desargues has exactly one polar.
• Parallel lines exist in the geometry of Desargues,
but their properties are different from ordinary
Euclidean parallels.
• For example, note in the figure that three different
lines can be drawn parallel to line R, C, B through
point A’ but that only one line can be drawn
parallel to line A, B, T.
• Fano’s finite geometry has the special property
of being self-dual. In other words, the plane
dual of each true statement is a true statement
for the geometry.
• The general symbol for geometries of this
special type is PG(n, q). The letters PG stand
for projective geometry. The letter n is the
number of dimensions, and q is the positive
integral power of a prime number.
• The geometry has q + 1 points on each line.
Thus, Fano’s geometry of the plane is PG(2, 2),
since there are three points on each line.
• THEOREM 1.13. The general formula for the
total number of points in PG(n, q) is

• For example, for the geometry of Fano, using

the general formula, the total number of
points is 7.
• If q = 3, then PG(2, 3) is a new finite
geometry that is self-dual. From Theorem
1.13, the total number of points is 13.
• PG(2, 3) is a finite geometry of 13 points and
13 lines. This geometry has the same axioms
as Fano’s geometry, except that there are
four points rather than three on every line.
• Various examples of simple drawings that can
be used for a finite geometry are shown in
the figure.
DO PROBLEM SET 3