SOCIOLOGICAL

THEORIES
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What is a theory?
 A set of statements that seek to explain in a
logical and systematic manner, social
processes.
 A series of propositions that seek to explain a
given phenomenon.
 A sociological theory is “a set of ideas that
claims to explain how society or aspects of
society work.” (H&H, 2013: 9)

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Types of Theories
 Macro theory: sees the society as a whole
and tries to explain how that whole functions
and reproduces itself.

 Micro theory: emphasizes and examines

social groups &/or individuals, most times
focusing on interaction between the two.

 Systems theory: examines how society

functions as a system and how its parts relate
to each other.
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Key Sociological Theories
 Consensus theory/Functionalism: Macro and
Systems theory

 Conflict theory: Macro and Systems theory

 Social Action theory: Micro theory

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 An Outline of Sociological Theories
(abbreviation of Hess et al, 1993:20)
Consensus Conflict Theory Interpretive
Theory Theory
Type of Macro, Systems Macro, Systems Micro
Theory
View of System of Comprising Individuals in
Society interrelated and groups in conflict face to face
interdependent over scarce interaction
parts resources create social
consensus
Basis of Value Power, control, Shared
Interaction consensus; conflict, constraint meanings due
shared goals to shared
symbols
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 Adapted from Table 2.2 - Three traditional
perspectives: a summary (M&P, 2012: 43)
Theoretical Orientation Image of Society Core Questions
Perspective
Functional Macro-level System of How is society
interrelated parts, integrated?
relatively stable What are society’s
due to consensus, major parts?
each part How are parts
important to whole interrelated?
What consequences
of each for society’s
functioning?

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 Adapted from Table 2.2 - Three traditional
perspectives: a summary (M&P, 2012: 43)
Theoretical Orientation Image of Society Core Questions
Perspective
Conflict Macro-level System that is How is society
unequal & conflict- divided?
based; some What are major
benefit more than patters of social
others; social inequality?
inequality caused How do some
by conflict, spurs protect their
social change privilege?
How do others
challenge the
status quo?

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 Adapted from Table 2.2 - Three traditional
perspectives: a summary (M&P, 2012: 43)
Theoretical Orientation Image of Society Core Questions
Perspective
Symbolic Micro-level Ongoing social How do individuals
Interaction interaction based experience society?
on symbolic How are social
communication; patterns created,
people’s changed,
perceptions of maintained?
reality are How do persons
variable and shape the reality
changing others perceive?
How does individual
behaviour change?

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Functionalism
 1st main sociological theory
 Theory emerged in Europe in 19thC
 Much of its ideas came from Auguste Comte
 Promotion of social integration
 Emile Durkheim developed theory
 Herbert Spencer (British), a key architect
 Talcott Parsons (US Sociologist) refined theory
in 20th C
 Dominant sociological theory in 1940s/1950s
 Declined from mid-1960s
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Functionalism
“The structural-functional perspective, then,
organises sociological observations by
identifying various structures of society and
investigating the function of each one.” (M&P,
2012: 38)

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Functionalism
 Society viewed as a system of interrelated
parts that function harmoniously.
 Biology influence
 Parts seen in terms of the whole
 Society is stable and self-regulating.
 Society is usually in a state of equilibrium or
balance.
 Asks the questions:
 How is society possible?
 How is social order maintained?
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Functionalism
 Behaviour is structured in terms of:
 Rules, values, norms, roles
 Concept of ‘function’
 How do societal institutions function to ensure
social order and survival/continuity of society?
 Society requires necessary conditions:
Functional Prerequisites
 What makes society survive? Egs:
 Socialization, Food/Shelter, Integration/Cohesion,
Social stratification, Family
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 Functionalism
 How does the social structure ensure these
functional prerequisites?
 How is the family functioning?
 How is the economy functioning?
 Value consensus
 Important for societal integration
 Social order
 Social stability/order critical to survival of social
system
 Shared values the key
 Socialization process vital
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Functionalism
 Emphasizes shared values, positive aspects
of social life and interaction
 Concerned about functions: beneficial, useful
 De-emphasizes conflict, disagreement,
dysfunction
 Institutions seen as working towards harmony
and maintenance of social system

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“According to functionalism, society is a system of
interconnected parts that work together in harmony to
maintain a state of balance and social equilibrium for
the whole. For example, each of the social institutions
contributes important functions for society: Family
provides a context for reproducing, nurturing, and
socializing children; education offers a way to
transmit a society’s skills, knowledge, and culture to
its youth; politics provides a means of governing
members of society; economics provides for the
production, distribution, and consumption of goods
and services; and religion provides moral guidance
and an outlet for worship of a higher power.”
https://laulima.hawaii.edu/access/content/user/kfrench/sociology/The%20Thre
e%20Main%20Sociological%20Perspectives.pdf

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“Functionalists use the terms functional and
dysfunctional to describe the effects of social
elements on society. Elements of society are
functional if they contribute to social stability and
dysfunctional if they disrupt social stability. Some
aspects of society can be both functional and
dysfunctional. For example, crime is dysfunctional in
that it is associated with physical violence, loss of
property, and fear. But according to Durkheim and
other functionalists, crime is also functional for
society because it leads to heightened awareness of
shared moral bonds and increased social cohesion.”

https://laulima.hawaii.edu/access/content/user/kfrench/sociology/The%20Thr
ee%20Main%20Sociological%20Perspectives.pdf
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 Functionalism cont’d.
“Functionalism emphasizes the consensus and
order that exist in society, focusing on social
stability and shared public values. From this
perspective, disorganization in the system, such
as deviant behavior, leads to change because
societal components must adjust to achieve
stability. When one part of the system is not
working or is dysfunctional, it affects all other
parts and creates social problems, which leads to
social change.”
https://www.thoughtco.com/functionalist-perspective-3026625
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Emile Durkheim (1858 – 1917)
 Concerned with order and consensus
 Society is the unit of analysis, not the
individual
 Individual’s importance measured in how
much he/she fulfills role in society
 Individual integrated into society by means of
collective conscience
 Beliefs, sentiments

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Emile Durkheim (1858 – 1917)
 Main function of society is integration.
 Although society exists beyond the members,
it is capable of shaping their behavior.
 The collective conscience maintains social
order and makes social life possible.
 “society has to be present in the individual”
 It represents the system of beliefs and
sentiments that are external to the individual.
 Once internalized it exercises constraints on
behaviour.
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Emile Durkheim (1858 – 1917)
 Social order is maintained by the deeply felt
normative constraints (based on societal
needs).
 This suggests the internalization of society’s
norms, values etc
 Durkheim argued that social change is
possible but it can be controlled and
channeled. Though society would change
there is always a system of solidarity that
ensures continuity.
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Emile Durkheim (1858 – 1917)
 Durkheim is noted for his work on suicide and
the development of the term ‘anomie’.
 Normlessness; a social condition linked to lack
of social order or breakdown of values;
detachment from society or other members of
a group
 In studying suicide rates and patterns he
posited that suicide was partly due to the
breakdown in the integrative fabric of society.

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Durkheim on Early, Traditional
Society
Characteristics:
Mechanical solidarity - Social bonds and
community feeling based on common morals
Strong collective conscience regulating how
individuals think and behave; Individual freedom
stifled
Reliance on kinship networks
Not many jobs, so little division of labour
Shared belief systems; Social life built on
sameness/likeness
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Durkheim on Modern, Complex
Society
Characteristics:
Organic Solidarity – bonds based on
specialization and interdependence
Sharing of beliefs and morals is less
entrenched
Specialized division of Labour
Members of society are more distinguishable
from each another
Social life built on difference
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Durkheim on 2 phases of society
Traditional Society Modern Society
 Mechanical Solidarity  Organic Solidarity
 Limited division of labour  Developed div. of labour
 Homogeneity  Heterogeneity
 Limited emphasis on the  High individuation
individual
 High degree of  Low degree of
interchangeability interchangeability
 Repressive law - punitive  Restitutive law -
rehabilitation
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Recap
 Functionalism is deemed to have been
developed by Comte, Spencer and Durkheim
 Society is comprised of parts that perform
specialized functions, yet work together
harmoniously, contributing to the overall
functioning of the whole.
 Each part provides a specific function needed
for society to survive – functional
prerequisites or basic needs.
 Emphasizes harmony, stability, integration
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 Recap cont’d
 The functionalists argue that value consensus
acts as the glue to ensure solidarity and stability.
 Functionalists do acknowledge that conflict
exists.
 According to Durkheim, what is responsible for
maintaining social order?
 Which of the following does Durkheim address?
 A) suicide B) anomie C) division of labour D) all of
the above

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 Recap cont’d
 Durkheim also known for contribution to
understanding how society evolves - the division
of labour.
 Durkheim asserted that traditional/ pre-industrial
societies were held together by a strong sense of
tradition: collective conscience (mechanical
solidarity).
 As society advanced, however, this weakened.
 What emerged was a different form of adhesive –
specialization that forced unity – organic
solidarity.
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Talcott Parsons

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 Talcott Parsons (1902 – 1979)
 Concerned with social order
 Society held together by a common value
system.
 The basis for social order
 Society’s survival linked to 4 essential functions
(functional prerequisites/imperatives):
 Adaptation
 Goal attainment
 Integration
 Pattern maintenance
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Parsons’ Functional Prerequisites
 Adaptation
 Relationship between social system and
the environment
 Social system should be in control of its
environment, securing sufficient resources
 Egs. Food/Shelter are important for
physical sustenance
 The economy is the institution concerned with
such matters and distribution of resources

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Parsons’ Functional Prerequisites
 Goal Attainment
 All societies must set goals for action
 “Procedures for establishing goals and
deciding on priorities between goals are
institutionalized in the form of political
systems.” (H&H, 2013: 957)
 Governments deal with things like resource
allocation, policy making, regulation of
economy, legislation

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Parsons’ Functional Prerequisites
 Integration
 Coordination and working together of all parts of
the social system
 The legal system ensures regulation of social
institutions for a harmonious society
 “The law is the main institution that meets this
need. Legal norms define and standardize
relations between individuals and between
institutions, and so reduce the potential for
conflict.” (H&H, 2013: 957)
 We see this executed via the judicial system
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Parsons’ Functional Prerequisites
 Pattern Maintenance
 This refers to “‘The maintenance of the
basic pattern of values, institutionalized in
the society’. Institutions that perform this
function include the family, the educational
system and religion.” (H&H, 2013: 957)

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 External Environment ACTION SYSTEMS within
(Natural & Social) PARSONS’ AGIL MODEL

ADAPTATION GOAL ATTAINMENT

   
   
Economic: Political:
Energy for Environmental Selective
Interactions Group-Determination

INTEGRATION LATENT PATTERN

MAINTENANCE &
  TENSION
MANAGEMENT
Cultural-Legal System: Kinship (family) System:
Institutions of socialization Values and Norms,
and social control Beliefs and Ideologies

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© 1998-2006 by Ronald Keith Bolender Bare Materials (Human Nature)
Parsons – Social Action and
Social System
 Building blocks of Parsons’ theory were
the distinctions between social action
and social system.
 Are actions of groups and individuals
determined by the society/system or by
individual or group’s choice based on their
own values/objectives?

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Parsons – Social Order
 Parsons’ belief: members of society naturally
cooperate, leading to social integration.
 This is possible because the values of society
are shared by social actors.
 "People act on the basis of their values; their
actions are oriented and constrained by the
values and norms of people around them;
and these norms and values are the basis of
social order" (Knapp, 1994, pp. 191-192)

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Parsons – Social Change
 Like Durkheim he explained the changes that
took place in society.
 The change to “universalism, performance,
specificity and affective neutrality.” -
http://www.grahamscambler.com/sociological-theorists-talcott-parsons/

 The change produced a society that was

better able to meet the needs of its members.
 Modernity was not the result of one
evolutionary process such as technological
change or economic stability but was the
result of a combination of events.
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Parsons – Social Change
 These changes would involve the political,
cultural, legal and economic institutions in
society producing a framework referred to as
GAIL or AGIL.
 Goal Attainment (Political system): the system
must be able to mobilize its personnel and
materials to attain its objectives.
 Adaptive Function (Economy): the system
must be able to maintain itself and at the same
time have transaction with other societies.
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Parsons – Social Change
 Integrative Function (Laws): the system must
ensure that it can reproduce itself by having
agencies of social control that will ensure the
transmission of values from one generation to
the next.

 Latent Pattern Maintenance and Tension

Management (Religion, Family, Education
System): there is the need to ensure the
motivation and morals of the members of the
society so that they can fulfill their objectives.
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Parsons – Social Change
 In an effort to link individuals’ actions to
normative expectations, Parsons developed
pattern variables.
 The patterned variables give the range of
possible decisions and modes of orientation
that distinguish between Traditional society
and Modern society.
 Traditional society: Pattern Variables A
 Modern society: Pattern Variables B.

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 Parsons’ Characterization of
Traditional and Modern Society
Traditional Modern Distinction
Society (A) Society (B)
Ascription Achievement Actors judge people by either
performance criteria
(education) or ascribed
qualities (age, sex, race)
Diffusiveness Specificity Actors choose whether to be
concerned about others in a
holistic manner or rather for
specific restricted purposes.

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 Parsons’ Characterization of
Traditional and Modern Society
Traditional Modern Distinction
Society (A) Society (B)
Affectivity Neutrality Actors can engage in a
relationship for instrumental
reasons without involving
feelings (neutrality) or for
emotional reasons (affectivity)
Particularism Universalism Actors have to decide whether
to judge a person by general
criteria (universalism) or a
criterion unique to that person
(particularism.)
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 Parsons’ Characterization of
Traditional and Modern Society
Traditional Modern Distinction
Society (A) Society (B)
Collectivity Self Actors determine the Unit of
analysis to be either the society
or the individual.

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 Criticisms of Functionalism
 Initially critiqued for its inability to account for
social change. This was revised to
acknowledge an orderly process of change that
restored equilibrium.
 Its argument of everything in society providing
a useful function is seen as circular or
tautological, as the reason is perceived to exist
in its definition.
 In other words, social institutions are functional
because they exist. Why do they exist? Because
they serve a specific function.
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Criticisms of Functionalism
“How can we assume that society has a
‘natural’ order, critics ask, when social patterns
vary from place to place and change over
time?”
“by emphasising social integration,
functionalism tends to gloss over inequality … -
divisions that may generate considerable
tension and conflict.” (M&P, 2012: 39)

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Criticisms of Functionalism
 Reification – the theory treats the society as
an autonomous entity that determines the
outcomes of individuals when in reality it is
not an independent living system.
 Perceived to be Euro-centric based on the
development in Europe and North America
and thus argued to hold limited relevance to
other societies.

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