Unit: V Robotics

Definition of a Robot:
“A Robot is a programmable, multi-functional
manipulator designed to move materials, parts,
tools or special devices through variable
programmed motions for the performance of
variety of tasks”.
Physical Configurations of a Robot:
- Industrial robots come in variety of shapes and
sizes.
- Almost all commercially available industrial
robots have one of the following four
configurations.
KNP. Prasad Dept. of IEM BMSCE.
 They are,
1. Polar co-ordinate configuration Robot
2. Cylindrical co-ordinate configuration Robot
3. Jointed arm co-ordinate configuration Robot
4. Cartesian co-ordinate configuration Robot

1) Polar co-ordinate configuration:

This configuration is also called as “spherical
coordinate system Robot” because the workspace
within which it can move its arm is a partial sphere.
By its construction it has a rotary base and a pivot that
can be used to rise or lower the telescopic arm.

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Arm

Base

Polar co-ordinate configuration

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2) Cylindrical co-ordinate configuration:
- In this configuration the robot has a vertical
column which swivels about the vertical axis.

- The arm consists of many orthogonal slides

which allow the arm to be moved up or down
and in and out with respect to the body.
- Apart from that, the wrist can be rotated about
the horizontal axes.
- The work volume of this type of robots
resemble a cylinder. That is the reason they are
called as cylindrical coordinate robots.
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Cylindrical co-ordinate configuration
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3) Jointed arm co-ordinate configuration:

- Jointed arm configuration is similar to the human

arm in movements.
- The arm consists of several straight members
connected by means of joints that are similar to
human shoulder, elbow, and wrist.
- The robot arm is mounted on a base which can
be rotated to provide the robot with the capacity to
work within the hemi- spherical space.
- The work volume of this kind of robots is hemi-
spherical.
KNP. Prasad Dept. of IEM BMSCE.
Jointed arm co-ordinate configuration

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4) Cartesian co-ordinate configuration:
- A robot which is constructed around this
configuration consists of orthogonal slides
that are parallel to the x, y and z axes of
the cartesian co-ordinate system.
- By appropriate movements of these
slides, the robot is capable of moving its
arm to any point within its rectangular
workspace.
- The work volume of this kind of robots is
rectangular cuboid.
KNP. Prasad Dept. of IEM BMSCE.
Cartesian co-ordinate configuration
KNP. Prasad Dept. of IEM BMSCE.
Basic Robot motions:
- Whatever may be the configuration, the
purpose of the robot is to perform the useful
task.
- To accomplish the task, an end effector, or
hand, is attached to the end of robot’s arm.
- It is this end effector which performs a
particular task.
- To do this task, the robot arm must be capable
of moving the end effector through a sequence
of motions/or positions.

KNP. Prasad Dept. of IEM BMSCE.

Six degrees of freedom:
- Basically, there are six degrees of freedom, which
provides the robot with the capability to move the
end effector through the required sequence of
motions.
- These six degrees of freedom is intended to
increase the versatility of the movement of the robot.
- Not all robots are equipped with the ability to move
in all six degrees.
- The six basic motion consists of three arm and
body motions, and three wrist motions.

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Arm and body motions:
i) Vertical traverse: Up-and-down motion of the arm,
caused by pivoting the entire arm about a horizontal
axis or moving the arm about a vertical slide.
ii) Radial traverse: Extension and retraction of the
arm (in-and-out movement).
iii) Rotational traverse: Rotation about the vertical
traverse.
Wrist motions:
i) Wrist swivel: Rotation of the wrist
ii) Wrist bend: Up-and-down movement of the wrist
iii) Wrist yaw: Right or left swivel of the wrist.

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Six degrees of freedom
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Motion systems:
- Like NC machine tools, the motion system of a robot can
also be classified into,
i) PTP system, and
ii) Continuous path system.
Some important technical terms:
1) Work volume: It is the spatial region within which the end
of the robot’s wrist can be manipulated to attain the required
position.
- The work volume of a robot is determined by it’s
configuration, size, and the limits of its arm and joint
manipulations.
- The work volume of a Cartesian coordinate robot will be
rectangular prism, and that of a cylindrical coordinate robot
is a cylinder, while the polar coordinate robot will have the
work volume of a partial sphere. The work volume of a
jointed arm robot will be somewhat like hemisphere.

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2) Precision of movement:
- The precision of movement of a robot is described by the
following terms:
a) Spatial resolution: It refers to the smallest increment of
motion at the wrist end that can be controlled by the robot.
- This is determined largely by robot’s control system
resolution, which depends upon its position control system
and the feedback measurement system.
- The spatial resolution is the sum of the control resolution
plus the mechanical inaccuracies of the system.
- The factors determining the control resolution are:
i) range of movement of the arm ii) the storage
capacity in the control memory for that movement, and iii)
the resolution of each degree of movement. Then the
total control resolution is the vector sum of each
component.

KNP. Prasad Dept. of IEM BMSCE.

b) Accuracy:
The accuracy of a robot refers to its capacity to position
its wrist end at a given target point within its work volume.
- The accuracy is very much dependent upon the spatial
resolution of a robot.
- The robot’s accuracy is affected by mechanical
inaccuracies such as, deflection of its components (over
hanging), gear inaccuracies, pay-load and so on.
c) Reliability: It refers to the robot’s ability to reposition
its wrist end at the same point in space that was
previously occupied.
3) Speed of movement: The speed with which the robot
can manipulate it’s end effector ranges upto a maximum
of 1.5 m/s

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- Robots have the adjustments to set the speed to
the required level for the task to be performed.
- The speed is determined by the factors such as,
the weight of the object to be moved, the distance to
be traveled, and the precision with which the object
to be positioned.
4) Weight carrying capacity: The weight carrying
capacity of robots covers a wide range. The range
covers from few grams to few hundreds of kgs.
depending upon the applications to which the robots
have been employed.
5) Types of drive system: Three basic types of
drive systems that are used in robots are:
a) hydraulic b) electric and c) pneumatic.
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Programming a Robot:
- The programming methods of a robot is
categorised into four types;
1) manual method 2) walk-through method
3) lead-through method 4) off-line programming.

1) Manual method:
- This is not actually a programming method.
- It is more like setting up the machine by
mechanical stops, cams, switches, and relays in the
robot’s control unit.
- This method is used for simpler robots like pick
and place robot and in animated toy robots.

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KNP. Prasad Dept. of IEM BMSCE.
KNP. Prasad Dept. of IEM BMSCE.
KNP. Prasad Dept. of IEM BMSCE.
KNP. Prasad Dept. of IEM BMSCE.
2) Walk-through method:
- In this method, the programmer moves the arm and
wrist of the robot through the motion sequence of the
work cycle.
- Each movement is recorded in the controller memory
of the robot for the subsequent playback of the
sequence.
- The speed with which the movements are performed
can be controlled independently later. Therefore the
cycle time during the walkthrough is not final.
- The main objective is to get the position sequence
correct.
- The walkthrough method is appropriate for spray
painting and arc welding robots.
KNP. Prasad Dept. of IEM BMSCE.
KNP. Prasad Dept. of IEM BMSCE.
KNP. Prasad Dept. of IEM BMSCE.
3) Lead-through method:
- The lead-through method uses a ‘teach pendant’ to
power drive the robot through its motion sequence.
- Teach pendant is a device (like a TV Remote)
which controls the physical movement of a robot.
- Each movement is stored into the memory of the
robot controller for future use for repetitive process.
- The lead-through method is a very popular method
of programming because of its ease and
convenience.

KNP. Prasad Dept. of IEM BMSCE.

4) Off-line programming:

- This method involves the programming of a robot

in an off-line mode, like NC programming.
- Off-line programming is done using a computer.
After the program is prepared it is entered into the
robot’s memory for the use during work cycle.
- The advantage of off-line programming is that the
production time of the robot is not lost.
- Programming is done while the robot is working on
some other work cycle.

KNP. Prasad Dept. of IEM BMSCE.

Robot programming language:
- There are many language used for programming a
robot, of which two are important, which are popular
and commonly used. They are;
a) VAL and b) MCL.

VAL language:
- The VAL language was developed by Victor
Scheinman for PUMA robot (assembly robot)
produced by Unimation Inc.
- VAL stands for Victor’s assembly language. It is
basically an off-line programming language used
for robots.
KNP. Prasad Dept. of IEM BMSCE.
- In VAL, Robotic statements are divided into two
categories, namely, monitor commands and
programming instructions.
- The monitor commands are a set of administrative
instructions that direct the operations of the robot
system. Some of the monitor commands are,
- preparing the system for the user to write
programs.
- defining the points in space.
- commanding the robot to execute the program .
- listing the programs on the monitor.
- Some of the monitor commands are,
EDIT, EXECUTE, SPEED, HERE………

KNP. Prasad Dept. of IEM BMSCE.

The program instructions are a set of statements used to
write robot programs.
- Programs in VAL direct the sequence of motions of
PUMA robot.
- Each statement corresponds to one movement of the
robot’s arm or wrist.
- Some of the program instructions are,
- move to a point
- open gripper
- close gripper
- move to a point along a straight line.
- The program instructions are entered into the memory of
the system by using the monitor command EDIT.
- This prepares the system to receive the program
instruction statements in the proper order.
KNP. Prasad Dept. of IEM BMSCE.
- Some of the other programming instruction are,
- MOVE, MOVES, APPRO, APPROS, DEPART,
OPENI and CLOSEI, EXIT………………

The MCL language

- MCL stands for Machine control language, which
was developed by McDonnell-Douglas corporation
USA.
- This language is based on APT (Automtically
programmable tools), and is designed to control a
complete manufacturing cell, including a cell with
robots.
- MCL is an enhancement of APT which possesses
additional options and features that are needed to do
off-line robotic work cell programming .
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 FMS Cell
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Manufacturing Cell

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- Additional vocabulary words are developed to provide
supplementary capabilities to include vision, inspection,
and control of signals to and from the various devices
that constitute the robotic workstation.
- MCL also permits the use of MACROs – the statements
that would be convenient to use for some specific
applications and also where certain operations are
repeated several times within a program.
- After the MCL program is written, it is compiled to
produce the CLFILE (Control language file) as output.
- The ambit of the CLFILE is further extended to
accommodate new MCL features that go beyond the
scope (cutter location data) in APT.

KNP. Prasad Dept. of IEM BMSCE.

The extensions include capabilities such as:
- the specifications (definition) of various devices
within the work cell and the tasks that are to be
performed by these devices.
- predefined reference which are associated with the
different m/c’s or devices in the cell.
- user defined reference which could be used for
defining the geometry of the work part.
- the part identification and acquisition with in the
work cell.
- Some of the programming words in MCL are,
DEVICE, SEND, RECEIV, WORKPT, ABORT,
TASK, REGION, LOCATE…………..

KNP. Prasad Dept. of IEM BMSCE.

End Effectors:
- An end effector is defined as a device which is
attached to the robot’s wrist to perform a specific
task.
- The task could be work-part handling, spot
welding, spray painting, or any other operation
involved such as assembly, etc.
- The end effector is a special purpose tool which
enables the robot to perform a particular job and it is
usually custom engineered for that job, either by the
company that owns the robot or by the company
which manufactured the robot.
- Generally most of the robot manufacturing
companies supply the end effectors as per the
requirements of the customers.
KNP. Prasad Dept. of IEM BMSCE.
The end effectors are generally divided into two
categories, namely,
a) Grippers, and
b) Tools.

Grippers:
- Grippers are used to hold either work-parts or tools
in pick-and-place operations, machine loading, or in
assembly work.
- There are so many ways in which the grippers can
be designed but the most appropriate design
depends upon the work-part or the material to be
handled.

KNP. Prasad Dept. of IEM BMSCE.

- The following is the list of most commonly used
grippers:
a) mechanical grippers – the friction or the
physical configuration of the gripper that holds the
object.
b) suction cups (vacuum cups) – used for
holding flat objects.
c) magnetic grippers – used for holding
ferrous objects.
d) scoops or ladles – used for carrying fluids,
powders, pellets, or granular substances.

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Mechanical Grippers

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KNP. Prasad Dept. of IEM BMSCE.
KNP. Prasad Dept. of IEM BMSCE.
KNP. Prasad Dept. of IEM BMSCE.
KNP. Prasad Dept. of IEM BMSCE.
KNP. Prasad Dept. of IEM BMSCE.
Suction or Vacuum cup

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Magnetic Grippers

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KNP. Prasad Dept. of IEM BMSCE.
KNP. Prasad Dept. of IEM BMSCE.
KNP. Prasad Dept. of IEM BMSCE.
Scoops

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KNP. Prasad Dept. of IEM BMSCE.
Ladles

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Tools as end effectors:
- There are a number of applications in which the
tool is used as an end effector during the work
cycle.
- In most applications, where the robot manipulates
the tool during the work cycle, the tool is directly
fastened to robot wrist which operates as an end
effector.
- Some examples of tool as end effectors are:
a) spot welding gun b) arc welding torch
c) spray painting gun d) drilling spindle
e) routers, grinders, wire brushes
f) heating torches.

KNP. Prasad Dept. of IEM BMSCE.

KNP. Prasad Dept. of IEM BMSCE.
KNP. Prasad Dept. of IEM BMSCE.
Oxy-acetylene torch
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 TIG Welding
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Spray Painting

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Drill head as end effector

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 Grinding

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Welding

Multiple Robotic
End effectors

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Work cell controller and Interlocks:
- Industrial robots usually work with other components in
the work cell such as processing equipments, assembly
machines, inspection stations, conveyers, tools, work
parts etc.
- A means has to be provided for coordinating all of the
activities which happen within the robotic workstation.
- Some of the activities occur sequentially, while others
may happen simultaneously.
- To make certain that the various activities are
coordinated and occur in the proper sequence, a device
called a work cell controller or work station controller is
used.
- The WCC is part of the robot and has the responsibility
of regulating the activities of the work cell components.

KNP. Prasad Dept. of IEM BMSCE.

 FMS Cell
KNP. Prasad Dept. of IEM BMSCE.
Interlocks:
- An Interlock is a feature of work cell controller
which prevents the work cycle sequence from
continuing until a certain condition or set of
conditions are satisfied.
- In a robotic work cell, there are two types of
interlocks: outgoing and incoming interlocks.
- The outgoing interlock is a signal sent from the
workstation controller to some external devices
(within the work cell) that will cause it operate or not
to operate.
- For Ex. This would be used to prevent a m/c from
continuing its process until it is commanded to
proceed further by the work cell controller.
KNP. Prasad Dept. of IEM BMSCE.
- An incoming Interlock is a signal from some external
device to the work controller which determines
whether or not the programmed work cycle sequence
to be continued.
- For Ex. This would be used to prevent the work cycle
program from continuing until the m/c signaled that it
had completed its previous operation.
- The use of interlocks provides an important benefit in
the control of the work cycle in a way, where it
prevents the actions from happening when they
shouldn’t, and it causes the actions to happen when
they are required.
- Interlocks are needed to help coordinate the activities
of various independent components in the work cell
and to help avert damage of one component by the
other.
KNP. Prasad Dept. of IEM BMSCE.
 Robot Sensors

Why do Robots Need Sensors?

What can be Sensed?
What Sensors are available?
What can they do?
 What is Sensing?

Collect information about the world

Sensor - an electrical/mechanical/chemical
device that maps an environmental attribute
to a quantitative measurement
Each sensor is based on a transduction
principle - conversion of energy from one
form to another

KNP. Prasad Dept. of IEM BMSCE.

 Why do Robots need Sensors?
Provides “awareness” of surroundings
– What’s ahead, around, “out there”?

Allows interaction with environment

– Robot lawn mower can “see” cut grass

Protection & Self-Preservation

– Safety, Damage Prevention

Gives the robot capability to goal-seek

– Find colorful objects, seek goals

Makes robots “interesting”

 Sensors – What can be sensed?

Light
– Presence, color, intensity, direction
Sound
– Presence, frequency, intensity, direction
Heat
– Temperature, wavelength, magnitude, direction
Chemicals
– Presence, concentration, identity, etc.
Object Proximity
– Presence/absence, distance, color, etc.
Physical orientation/position
– Magnitude, pitch, roll, yaw, coordinates, etc.
Sensors – What can be sensed?
Magnetic & Electric Fields
– Presence, magnitude, orientation
Resistance (electrical, indirectly via V/I)
– Presence, magnitude, etc.
Capacitance (via excitation/oscillation)
– Presence, magnitude, etc.
Inductance (via excitation/oscillation)
– Presence, magnitude, etc.
 What Sensors are available?

Feelers – Mechanical (Springs, Switches)

Photoelectric – Active & Passive
Infrared (light) – Active & Passive
Ultrasonic (sound) – Active & Passive
Sonic – Active & Passive
Resistive/Capacitive/Inductive – Active &
Passive
 What sensors are available?
Visual – Cameras & Arrays (Active & Passive)
Color Sensors (Active & Passive)
Magnetic (Active & Passive)
Orientation (Pitch & Roll)
GPS (location, altitude)
Compass (orientation, bearing)
Voltage – Electric Field Sensors
Current – Magnetic Field Sensors
Chemical – Smoke Detectors, Gas Sensors
Robotic Sensors:
- The different types of sensors that are used in
robots are classified in to the following types:
i) vision sensors
ii) tactile and proximity sensors
iii) voice sensors.
i) Vision sensors:
- Robot vision is made possible by means of a vision
camera, a light source, and a computer which is
programmed to process the image data.
- Camera is mounted on the robot or in a fixed
position above the robot so that its field of vision
includes the robot’s work volume.
KNP. Prasad Dept. of IEM BMSCE.
- The computer software enables the vision system
to sense the presence of an object and its position
and orientation.
- Vision capability enables the robot to carry-out the
following types of operations:
# Retrieve parts which are randomly oriented
# Recognize particular parts that are mixed with
other parts
# Perform visual inspection tasks
# Perform assembly operations which require

alignment.

KNP. Prasad Dept. of IEM BMSCE.

ii) Tactile and Proximity sensors:
- Tactile sensors provide the robot with the capability to
respond to contact forces between itself and other
objects within its work volume.
- Tactile sensors are classified into two types.
i) Touch sensors
ii) Stress sensors (force sensors).
Touch sensors are used to indicate whether contact has
been made with the object or not.
Ex. Microswitches.
Stress sensors are used to measure the magnitude of
the contact force. Strain gages are generally used in
force measuring sensors.
- The use of robots with tactile sensing capabilities is in
assembly and inspection operations.
KNP. Prasad Dept. of IEM BMSCE.
Proximity sensors:
- Proximity sensors are used to sense whether an
object is close to another object or not.
- On a robot, the proximity sensor is located on or
near the end effector.
- The sensing capability is enabled by means of
optical proximity devices, eddy current proximity
detectors, magnetic field sensors, etc.
- In robotics, proximity sensors are used to indicate
the presence or absence of an object within the work
volume.
- This could be helpful in preventing the damage
during the work cycle sequence operation.

KNP. Prasad Dept. of IEM BMSCE.

Voice sensors:
- One of the research areas in the field of robotics is
voice sensing or voice programming.
- Voice programming is defined as the oral
communication of commands to the robot or to the
other devices.
- The robot controller is equipped with a speech
(voice) recognition system which analyses the voice
input and compares it with a set of stored word
patterns.
- When a match is found between the input and the
stored vocabulary word, the robot performs some
action that corresponds that spelt word.

KNP. Prasad Dept. of IEM BMSCE.

- Voice sensors are useful in robot programming to
speed up the programming procedure.
- It is beneficial especially in hazardous environment
for performing unique operations such as
maintenance and repair work.
- The robot could be placed in hazardous
environment and remotely commanded to perform
the operations required by giving step-by-step
instructions.
END

KNP. Prasad Dept. of IEM BMSCE.