Module 2: Work Environment Design -

Visual Sense
Engr. Suzette M. Mercado, PIE, Asean Eng

BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY – Industrial Engineering Department

 Outline
⊳ Introduction
⊳ Learning Objectives
⊳ Vision and the eye
▸ Visual defects
▸ Visual System
⊳ Lighting and Illumination
▸ Light and Workplace Lighting
▸ Symptoms of Improper Lighting
▸ Elements of Lighting
▸ Measurement of Light
⊳ Principle of Lighting Design
⊳ Reference
⊳ Questions for Discussion 2
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 Introduction
Vision is the most valuable human sense. Human are visually directed and depend on their
eyesight every waking minute of the day. The way they use their eyes can define how well they
learn, work, and perform throughout their lives. Eyes are dependent on light and lighting, one of
the most overlooked and underemphasized components of workplaces. Continuously increasing,
tasks are done at close viewing distance and employees work under a variety of workplace
conditions. Employees visual system must adjust to these changes to function optimally. Whether
the job is being done at a computer or in a warehouse, the field of vision must be free of
reflections and glare. Lighting is effective in the workplace when it allows the worker to see the
details of a given task easily and accurately. Lighting and vision are mutually dependent, and both
must be considered when designing a working environment for maximum efficiency.
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 Introduction

This module will describe how to measure and produce illumination, the effects of
different lighting conditions on visual performance and visual comfort, and psychological
effects of illumination, and the risks inherent in exposure to light. More so, it will provide
information about how lighting can affect workplace well-being, focusing on visual function
and its role in workplace productivity. Vision syndrome as well as the eye and vision
problems is defined and solutions to it will be discussed.

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 Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this module the students will be able to:

1. Solve appropriate light level for a particular space or work
area.
2. Examine how lighting can affect human performance,
morale, and safety.

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 1
Vision and the eye

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 The Human Eye

⊳ The human eye is the organ which gives us the sense of sight and allowing us
to observe and learn more about the surrounding world than we do with any
of the other four senses.
⊳ We use our eyes in almost every activity we perform, whether reading,
working, watching television or writing etc.
⊳ The eye can detect bright light or dim light, but it cannot sense objects when
light is absent.
⊳ 70 percent of all sensory receptors are in the eyes
⊳ The vision is a photoreceptor sense

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 The Structure of the Eye
The eye is a fluid-filled membranous sphere that converts
electromagnetic radiation into nerve impulses that it transmits
to the brain along the optic nerve. Light enters through a
transparent outer covering called the cornea. The cornea
plays a major role in refracting the light. Further refraction
occurs as the light passes through the lens. The pupil works
like the aperture of a camera to vary the amount of light
entering the eye. In bright light, the iris contracts, the Figure 1. Basic structure of the eye.
pupillary diameter decreases and only the central part of the a = cornea; b = pupil; c = lens;
d = ciliary muscle; e = suspensory
lens forms an image on the retina. In poor light, the iris ligaments; f = retina; g = fovea;
h = blind spot; i = optic nerve.
expands, and a larger area of the lens is used.
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 “
In the electromagnetic spectrum.
Visible light falls in the range
380–760 nanometers (nm).

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 How We See

⊳ Our eyes sense energy from the outside in the form of light rays
and convert these into nerve impulses, which the brain
integrates into a visual picture of the outside world.
⊳ People differ greatly in their interpretation of visual data,
depending on their age, experience, attitude, and preconceived
ideas.
⊳ People also differ in their abilities to recognize colors and focus
clearly on visual targets, and usually significant changes in these
abilities occur as one ages.

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 Visual Defects

Many people have difficulties in focusing on objects due to myopia

(near-sightedness), hyperopia (far-sightedness), astigmatism (the
vision along vertical axis is different from the horizontal axis), and
presbyopia (changes due to age). Refractive errors are caused by the
shape of the eye and by the changes in the lens of the eye.

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 Visual Defects

⊳ Asthenopia is diminished visual acuity associated with eyestrain, pain in the eyes and
headache. It is common in people who carry out near visual work for long periods and
naturally reverses shortly after the cessation of close visual work.
⊳ Myopia is sometimes referred to as ‘nearsightedness’ because the near point is closer
to the eye in myopic people (for an equal amount of accommodation) than it is to a
healthy eye. Myopic individuals cannot bring distant objects into focus. Myopic
individuals can often carry out close tasks such as VDU work or sewing with ease but
experience difficulties with tasks such as driving when target objects are more than 5–
10 meters away.

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 Visual Defects
⊳ Hypermetropia is sometimes referred to as ‘farsightedness’ because the near point is
farther away from the eye (for an equal amount of accommodation) than it is in a
healthy eye. Hypermetropic individuals can be said to lack refractive power and may
tire quickly when carrying out work in which the viewing distance is short (such as
using a VDU).
⊳ In astigmatism, there is an unequal curvature of the refractive of the eye such that the
refractive power is not the same in one plane as in another. When an object of
complex shape is viewed, the retinal image may be out of focus in one plane but not
in others. Astigmatic individuals often perform quite well when given simple eye tests
because the defect is corrected by the depth of focus of the eye. However, they may
experience severe difficulties at night or when there is excessive glare.
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 Visual System
⊳ A complete eye examination is more than just reading letters on a chart 20 feet away.
⊳ This is simply one test to measure the function of one part of the visual system.
⊳ The eyeball is just the receiver of light.
⊳ Visual processing is accomplished in the brain, where visual perception occurs.
⊳ The visual cortex is the largest system in the human brain and is responsible for
processing the visual image. It lies at the occipital lobe of the brain above the
cerebellum.
⊳ Eyesight is the process of properly focusing the incoming light to the correct area of the
retina, whereas visual perception is the process of taking that information into the brain,
making sense of it, and reacting appropriately
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 Visual System

⊳ When we walk into a dark movie theatre, it will take a few minutes before the
eyes adapt to the darkness. After that, we can see the surrounding people. This
process is called dark adaptation, and it is achieved by photo-chemical processes
in the eye.
⊳ When light hits the photopigments, they undergo a chemical reaction that
converts the light energy into electrical activity. This chemical reaction is referred
to as light adaptation. In this process, the photopigments are decomposed. Intense
light will decompose the photopigments rapidly and completely, thus reducing the
sensitivity of the eyes so that it becomes difficult to see in dim light.

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 2
Lighting and Illumination

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 What is Light

⊳ Light may be defined as electromagnetic radiation that can affect the sense of
sight.
⊳ Without light, we cannot see.
⊳ The sun, a lamp, or an electronic display generates light. The moon, the walls of
a room, or a page of print reflect light.
⊳ The most important factor for human vision is luminance, the light energy
reflected from a surface (unless we stare into a light source).

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 Sources of Light

⊳ Daylight: How much daylight reaches inside a building depends on the

architecture of the building (does the building have windows? how big? how are
they oriented?), the amount and direction of sunlight, cloud cover, local terrain,
and the season. The cleanliness of the windows is important as well. The
amount of daylight entering the workplace can be controlled with tinted glass,
window blinds, curtains, and awnings. Daylight is desirable in the workplace
providing it does not cause glare or make the work area too bright. Remember,
not enough light can also be a problem so even in workplaces where daylight is
available, it is essential to have a good electric lighting system.

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 Sources of Light
⊳ Electric Lighting: The amount of light, the color of the light itself and the color that
objects appear vary with the type of electric lighting. The lighting must match the
workplace and the task. The following are common types of bulbs.

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 Workplace Lighting

An important factor that affects workers’ ability to see well in the workplace is the
quality of light. Quality lighting, created by attention to brightness, contrast, quantity,
and color of light, results in visibility and visual comfort. Contrast between a task
object and its immediate background must be sufficient to enable the worker to clearly
view the task. Contrast ratios should be established to maximize productivity without
increasing eyestrain. In general, a 1:3:10 ratio is ideal; that is, the task area should be
less than 3 times as bright as its immediate surroundings (within 25° of the visual
target) and 10 times brighter than the peripheral area (past 25°).

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 Workplace Lighting

Lighting in the workplace has many different functions.

The following are some of these functions:
⊳ contributes to the overall workplace environment,
⊳ illuminates specific tasks so that they can be completed accurately and efficiently,
⊳ plays an important role in accident prevention, and
⊳ contributes to security in and around the workplace.
A proper lighting system for a workstation considers the visual demands of the task(s) and
balances general or ambient lighting with task specific lighting to achieve comfort,
efficiency and accuracy.
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 What Happens When Lighting is Improper?
Improper lighting causes excessive eye strain and can result in tiredness or fatigue of the
eyes. It can also contribute to generalized fatigue and stress.
Symptoms From Too Much Light Include:
⊳ irritation, burning, tearing, and redness of the eyelids.
⊳ reduced sharpness of vision and sensitivity to contrast.
Symptoms From Too Little Light Include:
⊳ double vision and headaches.
⊳ Reduced ability to quickly adjust focus between near and far objects.
⊳ Reduced sharpness of vision and sensitivity to contrast.
⊳ musculoskeletal problems from adapting poor postures to compensate for the inadequate light.
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 What Happens When Lighting is Improper?

As people age, their vision changes. This can be accommodated for with changes in the
lighting. Adjustments need to be made such as increasing light levels and reducing
glare.
Effects on Work Include:
⊳ decrease in productivity (less work is completed).
⊳ decrease in accuracy (more errors are made).
⊳ decrease in quality of work.
⊳ increase in accidents.
Poor lighting is also a workplace security hazard, especially for shift workers who may
not have coworkers nearby or must walk to a bus or parking lot after dark. 23
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 Elements of Lighting

When determining proper lighting for a workstation it is

important to first determine the visual requirements of the task.
Electronics assembly, engine repair, and data entry on video
display terminals all require different lighting. Size of the
objects being viewed, amount of contrast between the object
and the background and the allotted viewing time all help to
determine both quality and quantity of light required for any
given task.
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 Elements of Lighting

⊳ Quantity of Light: The level of quantity of light falling on a surface is called

illuminance. More light is needed for fast paced fine detailed work with low
contrast, such as rapid reading of small letters in pencil, than for rough assembly
work. The Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, has developed
recommended illuminance levels that account for the task, the age of the worker,
and the speed and accuracy required.
⊳ Quality of Light: There are several elements of light quality that must also be
accounted for when determining the proper lighting for a workstation or work
environment. These include luminance, reflectance, contrast, glare, and color.

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 Elements of Lighting

⊳ Luminance is the amount of light reflected or coming from a light source or surface. It is
important that there is not a great difference between the luminance levels for the task and that of
the surrounding area. Luminance levels for the immediate area surrounding the tasks should be one
third that of the task. The further from the task the less light is needed.
⊳ Reflectance is the percentage of light falling on a surface that is reflected. In an office the most
reflective surface should be the ceiling; the least reflective should be the floor and in between are
the reflectance of walls and furniture. In general, reflections from surfaces within the field of view
should be minimized. Color and finish are used to control the reflectance of a surface. A totally
black surface reflects no light. For a white surfaces the reverse is true. Also a matte finish reflects
less light than a shiny one of the same color.

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 Elements of Lighting

⊳ Contrast is the relationship between the light coming from an object and the immediate
background, such as words on paper. High contrast is important for fine detail work. Using a black
pen in place of a pencil for handwritten copy will increase the contrast and improve the readability.
⊳ Glare occurs when there is too much direct or reflected light within the field of view. Glare causes
a decrease in contrast which results in decreased visibility and physical discomfort. Even low-level
indirect glare that may not be noticeable can cause eye strain and fatigue. The adverse effect of
glare on visibility increases with age. Glare can be controlled by using indirect light sources and
positioning direct and reflected light sources outside the field of view. Special anti-glare screens
are available for visual display terminals if necessary.

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 Elements of Lighting

⊳ Color can affect both the mood and the perception of size in a workplace.
Blues and greens are considered relaxing or soothing.
Orange, yellow and brown colors are thought to be stimulating.
Red and violet are considered alarming or aggressive.
Pastel colors reduce the impact of color.
Cool colors such as blues and greens can make a space seem larger.
Reds and oranges can make a space seem smaller.
Different types of lights will influence how colors are perceived. If the light source is not coordinated
with the color of a work area colors may be perceived as off or strange. Visibility may be more
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 Elements of Lighting

⊳ Visual Acuity. Visual acuity can be defined in several ways, usually done as the ability to detect
small details and discriminate small objects by eyesight. Visual acuity depends on the shape of the
object and on the wavelength, the illumination, the luminance, the contrast, and the duration of the
light stimulus. Visual acuity is usually measured at viewing distances of 6 m (20 ft) and 0.4 m (1.3
ft), because factors that determine the resolution of an object differ in far and near viewing. For
determining acuity, high-contrast patterns are presented to the observer. The most common patterns
are either Snellen letters. The smallest detail detected or identified is taken as the threshold. These
measures of acuity primarily depend on the ability to see edge differences between black and white
stimuli at rather high illuminance levels.

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 Elements of Lighting

⊳ Visibility is the clarity with which a human can see an object. There are 3 critical
factors in visibility: visual angle, contrast and illuminance.
▸ Visual angle: size of target on retina; the angle the image takes up on retina.
▸ Contrast: relative difference in luminance (light reflected) for two surfaces
contrast = (Lmax – Lmin)/Lmax

Where L is the luminance of each surface.

▸ Illuminance: amount of light reaching a surface (most important)

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 Measurement of Light

Measurement of light is essential in the design and evaluation of

workplaces. Because the eye adapts to light levels, automatically
compensating for any changes in illumination, subjective
estimates of the amount of light in a work area are likely to be
misleading. Data concerning the visual response of the eye have
been used to define lighting measures. The measurement of light
is known as photometry. The main photometric units are luminous
intensity, luminous flux, luminance and illuminance.

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 Measurement of Light

Illuminance
⊳ Lighting intensity is measured in candalas (cd), or lumens, where 1 cd =
12.57 lumens.
⊳ Illuminance is the amount of light shining on an object, measured in foot-
candles (fc):
Illuminance = intensity / d2
where d is in feet.
Intensity is foot-candles (fc)
luminous intensity is candela, luminous flux is lumens
⊳ Illuminance can be measured also in lux = cd/m2
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 Measurement of Light

Luminance
⊳ Luminance is the amount of light reflected from an object,
▸ It impacts our ability to see objects,
▸ It is measured in foot-lamberts (fL):

Luminance can be measured by a photometer (pointed at surface).

luminance = illuminance x reflectance

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 Measurement of Light

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 Measurement of Illumination and Luminance

Reflectance
⊳ Reflectance is determined by the physical and color properties of an object; how much
light is absorbed or thrown back at the viewer? It is the property of a surface which is
determined by both color and surface finish and expressed as a percentage of light
reflected (luminance).
⊳ Table 6-1 lists reflectance for various colors and surfaces.
⊳ Reflectance is a ration between:
▸ The measured reflectance of the target surface,
▸ The measured reflectance of a standard Kodak neutral test card = 0.9

Reflectance = 0.9 x Ltarget / Lstandard

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 Measurement of Light

Reflectance
⊳ The proportion of light reflected by a lighted surface is referred to as reflectance. That
is,
reflectance
⊳ when luminance is measured in ft-lamberts, and illuminance in ft-candles. If the
luminance is measured in candelas/m2, and illuminance in lux, the reflectance
becomes:
reflectance

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 Measurement of Light

Reflectance

White, painted surfaces have a reflectance of around 90%. Newsprint and bare
concrete are around 50%. Dark painted surfaces may be as low as 5%. The use of
appropriate paints and finishes is an important design strategy for spreading reflected light
evenly throughout the workplace in a way that can both reduce lighting bills and create a
more pleasant environment. Standards such as ANSI/IES RP-7-1979—Practices for
Industrial Lighting recommend reflectance values of 80% to 90% for ceilings, 40% to 60%
for walls, 25% to 45% for desks and bench tops, and 20% or higher for floors.

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 Measurement of Light

Table 1.1 and 1.2,

shows the typical
reflectance values

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 Recommended
Illumination

Table 2, shows how

much light (in fC) is
needed for different
types of tasks.

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 Recommended
Illumination

Similar to Table 2, it
shows General and
Specific Illumination
Recommendations
(Adapted from IESNA, 1988.)

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 Measurement of Light
To compute or measure recommended illumination:
⊳ Pick general category based on activity
⊳ Adjust for this three factors. The amount of light needed is a function of:
▸ The nature of the task (speed/accuracy of task),
▸ The worker (age and visual health),
▸ The reflectance of the task background.

This Table 3, shows the weight factors used in the light needed.
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 Measurement of Light

⊳ For Example, table 2 will give you a range of lighting levels (low, medium, high)
suitable for a general task category:

⊳ After determining each weight and summing them, a similar set of rules are used to
assign a high, medium, or low value within the range of illumination values
suggested for the particular category. That is,
▸ choose between Low: -3, -2,
Medium: -1, 0, +1
High: +2, +3
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 Example 1

A luminaire producing a luminous intensity of 1500 candela in all

directions below the horizontal, is suspended 4m above a surface.
Calculate the illuminance produced on the surface immediately
below the luminaire.

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 Solution to Example 1

Illuminance (fc) = intensity/d2

1 meter = 3.281 ft; 4m = 13.124 ft.

Therefore,
Illuminance = 1500cd/(13.124ft)2 = 8.709 fc or
Illuminance = 1500cd/(4m)2 = 93.75 lux

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 Example 2

H & R Block (tax preparation company) hires retired people (60

+ years old) to prepare taxes from January thru April. The task
must be done with reasonable speed (particularly in April) and
high accuracy. The notes people give to their tax preparers
range from high quality printed receipts, to handwritten pencil
notes on yellow notebook paper (low contrast) Is it sufficient to
light the tax preparer’s desk with a single 800 lumen1
incandescent bulb, if the bulb is 5 feet above the worker’s desk,
and the surroundings are cream colored?
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 Example 2

Consider this question in two parts:

⊳ How many fc’s are needed?
⊳ Is a 800 lumen bulb sufficient to provide that
illuminance, if the light source is 5 ft. from the work?

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 Solution to Example 2
1. How many fc’s are needed?
Find reflectance of surroundings: light cream gives you approximately 75% reflectance.
Find the general task category: Category F
Find weighting factors based on:
Task characteristic value weight
▸ Age of workers, 55 + +1
▸ Reflectance of surroundings, greater than 70% -1
▸ Criticality: speed and accuracy, critical +1
Total Weight = 1 + (-1) + 1 = + 1
To find amount of light needed, use weighting factor to pick illuminance value:
since total weight factor is equal to +1, it requires medium illumination, need at least 150
fc!
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 Solution to Example 2
2. Is a 800 lumen bulb sufficient?
Is a 800 lumen bulb sufficient to provide 150 fc on the work surface, if the light source is
5 ft. from the work surface?
1 cd = 12.57 lumens
800 lumens to candela: 800 lumens * 1 cd/12.57 lumens = 63.64 cd
To compute Illuminance (fc):
Illuminance (fc) = intensity/d2
63.64 cd/(5ft)2 = 2.5 fc
Therefore, this bulb at 5 ft is inadequate! (Ok for general lighting in a public area).

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 “
Historically, ergonomics can be seen to have arisen as a
response to the need for rapid design of complex systems. The
modern ergonomist has an important role to play as a member
of the design team, providing scientific information about
humans and ensuring that all aspects of the system are evaluated
from the users’ or operators’ point of view. The participatory
approach seems to be the best way to ensure that the
implementation of ergonomics will be effective.

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 3
Lighting Design

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 Principle of Lighting Design
1. Provide enough lighting to ensure an adequate level of visibility for the tasks that will be
performed.
2. Less illumination is needed when the visual acuity needed to perform the task is low, or
when the contrast between a visual detail and the background is high. .
3. Provide general illumination over a room for the most typical tasks and supplement with
auxiliary light sources for more exacting visual tasks.
4. More illumination and contrast is often helpful to people who are older or visually
impaired.
5. More illumination or contrast is needed when viewing times are short. This is also true if
the critical visual details are on moving targets, or if their location or presence is
unpredictable.
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 Principle of Lighting Design
6. Increasing either the contrast between an object and its background or the size of critical
details can be a better strategy than increasing the amount of illumination.
7. Ambient illumination of luminous displays such as CRTs and LEDs should be minimized
to improve contrast. Light sources should be placed so they do not directly illuminate the
surface of luminous displays.
8. Eliminate or try to minimize direct sources of glare or shadows by using indirect lighting
or by appropriate positioning of light sources.
9. Avoid or minimize extreme transitions in illumination levels between adjoining areas of
the task or environment.
10. Match the color and color rendering properties of light sources to the task-related needs
of the people using the environment.
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 Strategies for Energy Savings and Efficiency

1. more efficient lamps, ballasts, and fixtures. 6. photoelectric sensors that sense the amount of
2. better placement and arrangement of light daylight in the room and
fixtures, shields, and shades. either switch lamps on or off or adjust the lamp
3. use of daylight. brightness accordingly.

4. timers and occupancy sensors that turn lights 7. localized lighting in areas where more light is
off when they are not needed. needed.

5. on-off and dimmer switches in convenient 8. reduced lighting levels in nonproduction areas.
locations so that people can turn off or reduce 9. regular cleaning of lamps, fixtures, windows,
unneeded lighting. skylights, walls, and ceilings.
10. placing lights in better locations.
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 Strategies for Ambient Illumination

1. providing shades and window curtains to keep direct sunlight off the surfaces of CRTs or
other displays.
2. placing shades on lamps and light fixtures.
3. locating light sources well above the work surface so they are not directly casting their
light on the screen.
4. providing dimmer switches so people can adjust the light levels downwards.
5. changing the orientation of workstations to reduce reflections off of the display surface.

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 Improving Visibility
⊳ One can improve visability in several ways:
▸ Increase source intensity (increase wattage, change to more efficient type:
florescent, halogen)
▸ Bring target closer to viewer
▸ Bring target closer to light source
▸ Increase contrast
▸ Increase target size (big print books)
⊳ Solutions to Glare
▸ Change to indirect lighting,
▸ Change lighting angle, or work surface angle,
▸ Use non-glare surfaces,
▸ Use polarizing filters on light sources or eyewear
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 Guidelines for the visual design of VDU tasks

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 Visual Ergonomics

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 ISO for Lighting Design and Requirements

⊳ ISO 8995-1:2002(en) Lighting of work places — Part 1:

Indoor. This International Standard was prepared jointly by
CIE-TC 3-21 and ISO/TC 159/SC 5. It replaces
publication CIE 29.2-1986 and deals with Lighting
Requirements for Indoor Work Places.
⊳ BSI Standards Publication_ Light and Lighting of Workpla
ces.pdf
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 References:

Lehto, M. R., Landry, S.J., Introduction to Human factors and Ergonomics for Engineers, 2nd Edition, CRC Press, 2013
https://www.pdfdrive.com/fitting-the-human-introduction-to-ergonomics-human-factors-engineering-e158280956.html
https://kuliahdianmardi.files.wordpress.com/2016/03/handbook-of-human-factors-and-ergonomics-fourth-edition-2012.pdf
http://ssu.ac.ir/cms/fileadmin/user_upload/Daneshkadaha/dbehdasht/khatamat_behdashti/kotobe_latin/Introduction_to_Ergonomics.pdf
https://www.pdfdrive.com/a-guide-to-human-factors-and-ergonomics-e34320317.html
https://www.ccohs.ca/
https://www.iso.org/

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 Questions For
Discussion
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 1. Why is lighting important?

2. What are some of the common

lighting problems

3. How do you test and correct

insufficient light problems
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BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY – Industrial Engineering Department