Transfer Functions

An algebraic expression

Convenient representation of a linear,

dynamic model.

A transfer function (TF) relates one input

and one output:
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( )
( )
( )
( )
system
x t y t
X s Y s

Transfer Functions

Independent of initial conditions

Independent of particular choice of forcing functions

The following terminology is used:
x
input
forcing function
cause
y
output
response
effect
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Definition of the transfer function:
Let G(s) denote the transfer function between an input, x(t), and
an output, y(t). Then, by definition
where:
( )
( )
( )
Y s
G s
X s

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Y s y t
X s x t
]
]
]
]
=L
=L
Development of Transfer Functions
Example: Stirred Tank Heating System
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Figure 2.3 Stirred-tank heating process with constant holdup, V.
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Recall the previous dynamic model, assuming constant liquid
holdup and flow rates:
( )
(2-36)
i
dT
V C wC T T Q
dt
+
Suppose the process is initially at steady state:
( )
0 (2)
i
wC T T Q +
For new values of Q and T
i
, subtracting (2) from (2-36):
( ) ( ) ( )
(3)
i i
dT
V C wC T T T T Q Q
dt

]
+
]
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which shows the dependence of T on Q and T
i
.
Thus,
( )
(4)
i
dT
V C wC T T Q
dt

+
Where are called
deviation variables.
, ,
i i i
T T T T T T Q Q Q


Take L of (4):
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At the initial steady state, T(0) = 0.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0 (5)
i
V C sT s T wC T s T s Q s

] ]
] ]
+
( ) ( ) ( )
1
(6)
1 1
i
K
T s Q s T s
s s
| ` | `

+

+ +
. , . ,
Rearrange (5) to solve for
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where
1
and
V
K
wC w

(s) T (s) G (s) Q (s) (s)=G T
i

+

2 1
K = steady-state gain, = process time constant
G
1
, G
2
= transfer functions

(6)
The transfer functions G
1
and G
2
are independent of
the inputs, Q and T
i
.

They do not depend on the initial conditions if

deviation variables are used.
G
1
(process) has gain K and time constant .
G
2
(disturbance) has gain=1 and time constant .

Gain = G(s=0).

speed of response. speed,

speed.

Process gains relate steady state changes in process

output resulting from step changes in either input.
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If there is no change in inlet temperature (T
i
= 0), then
T
i
(s) = 0. similarly, if there is no change in heater input
(Q=0), then Q (s) = 0.
System can be forced by a change in either T
i
or Q (see
Example 4.2 in the text), or both.

According to (6), the effects of changes in both Q and

T
i
are additive. This always occurs for linear, dynamic
models because the Principle of Superposition is valid.

Use deviation variables to eliminate initial conditions

for TF models.

The TF model enables us to determine the output

response to any change in an input.
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Example: Stirred Tank Heater
No change in T
i

Step change in Q(t): 1500 cal/sec to 2000 cal/sec

0.05 500 25
2 1 (2 1)
T
s s s s

+ +
What is T(t)?
/
25
( ) 25[1 ] ( )
( 1)
t
T t e T s
s s

+
/ 2
( ) 25[1 ]
t
T t e

From line 13, Table 3.1
0.05 K C/(cal/sec) 2.0
sec
0.05
2 1
T Q
s

+
(s)
s
s Q t Q
500
) ( cal/sec 500 1500 2000 ) (

Properties of Transfer Function Models

1. Steady-State Gain
The steady-state of a TF can be used to calculate the
steady-state change in an output due to a steady-state
change in the input. For example, suppose we know two
steady states for an input, u, and an output, y. Then we can
calculate the steady-state gain, K, from:
2 1
2 1
(4-38)
y y
K
u u

For a linear system, K is a constant. But for a nonlinear

system, K will depend on the operating condition
( )
, . u y
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Calculation of K from the TF Model:
If a TF model has a steady-state gain, then:
( )
0
lim (14)
s
K G s

This important result is a consequence of the Final Value

Theorem

Note: Some TF models do not have a steady-state gain (e.g.,

integrating process in Ch. 5)
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2. Order of a TF Model
Consider a general n-th order, linear ODE:
1
1 1 0
1
1
1 1 0
1
(4-39)
n n m
n n m
n n m
m
m
m
d y dy dy d u
a a a a y b
dt
dt dt dt
d u du
b b b u
dt
dt

+ + + +
+ + +
K
K
Take L, assuming the initial conditions are all zero. Rearranging
gives the TF:
( )
( )
( )
0
0
(4-40)
m
i
i
i
n
i
i
i
b s
Y s
G s
U s
a s

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The order of the TF is defined to be the order of the denominator
polynomial.
Note: The order of the TF is equal to the order of the ODE.
Definition:
Physical Realizability:
For any physical system, in (4-38). Otherwise, the
system response to a step input will be an impulse. This cant
happen.
Example:
n m
0 1 0
and step change in (4-41)
du
a y b b u u
dt
+
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General 2nd order ODE:
Laplace Transform:
y=Ku
dt
dy
+b
dt
y d
a +
2
2
[ ] KU(s) Y(s) bs+ as + 1
2
( ) ( ) 1 1 1 ) (
) (
) (
2 1
2
+ +

+ +

s s
K
bs as
K
s U
s Y
s G

real roots
2
b
1
4a
>
imaginary roots
2
b
1
4a
<
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2nd order process
K = overall steady state gain of the process

1
,
2
= two time constants
b a +
2 1 2 1
,
2 IMPORTANT properties of Transfer Functions
A. Multiplicative Rule
B. Additive Rule
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Example 1:
Example 1:
Place sensor for temperature downstream from heated
tank (transport lag)
Distance L for plug flow,
Dead time
V = fluid velocity
Tank:
Sensor:
Overall transfer function:
1
1
1
K T(s)
G = =
U(s) 1+ s
V
L

s
2
s -
2 s
2
+ 1
e K
=
T(s)
(s) T
= G

) 1 )( 1 ( ) 1 )( 1 (
2 1
1
1
2 1
2 1
1 2
2
+ +

+ +

s s
e K
s s
e K K
G G
U
T
T
T
U
T
s
K
s
s s


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) (
1 1
t u K T
dt
dT
+

) ( ) ( ), (
s 2 s
s
2
+ t T t T t T K T
dt
dT

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Example 2: Example 2: Consider the system shown below. The
system consists of two liquid surge tanks in series so that
the outflow from the first tank is the inflow to the second
tank.
Equations (2.56) and (2.57) are valid for each tank.
For tank 1,
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48) - (4
1
1
1
q q
dt
dh
A
i

1
1
1
1
h
R
q
(4 - 49)
1
1
1
1
h
R
q

Putting into deviation variable forms to (4-50) and (4-49) gives




(4 -52)
51) - (4
1
1
1
1
1
h
R
q
dt
h d
A
i

Substituting (4-49) into (4-48) eliminates q

1
:
50) - (4
1
1
1
1
1
h
R
q
dt
dh
A
i

The transfer function relating
) (
1
s H

to
) (s Q
i

is found
by transforming (4-51) and rearranging to obtain

(4-53)
1 1 ) (
) (
1
1
1 1
1 1
+

s
K
s R A
R
s Q
s H
i

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Similarly, the transfer function relating
) (
1
s Q

to
) (
1
s H

is obtained by transforming (4-52).

(4-54)
1 1 1
1
1 1
) (
) (
K R s H
s Q

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The same procedure leads to the corresponding transfer
functions for Tank 2,

(4-55)


(4.56)
1 1 ) (
) (
2
2
2 2
2
1
2
+

s
K
s R A
R
s Q
s H

2 2 2
2
1 1
) (
) (
K R s H
s Q

Note that the desired transfer function relating the outflow

from Tank 2 to the inflow to Tank 1 can be derived by
forming the product of (4-53) through (4-56).
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) (
) (
) (
) (
) (
) (
) (
) (
) (
) (
1
1
1
1
2
2
2 2
s Q
s H
s H
s Q
s Q
s H
s H
s Q
s Q
s Q
i i

or
1
1
1
1
) (
) (
1
1
1 2
2
2
2
+ +

s
K
K s
K
K s Q
s Q
i

which can be simplified to give
( ) ( ) 1 1
1
) (
) (
2 1
2
+ +

s s s Q
s Q
i

(4-59)
(4-57)
(4-58)
Linearization of Nonlinear Models

Required to derive transfer function.

Good approximation near a given operating point.

Gain, time constants may change with operating point.

Use 1st order Taylor series.

) , ( u y f
dt
dy

) ( ) ( ) , ( ) , (
,
,
u u
u
f
y y
y
f
u y f u y f
u y
u y

+
u
u
f
y
y
f
dt
y d
s
s

Subtract steady-state equation from dynamic equation:

(4-60)
(4-61)
(4-62)
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To be evaluated at steady state values of the variables.
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Example 3: Example 3:

q
0
: control variable,
q
i
: disturbance variable
...(1)
0
q q
dt
dh
A
i

Use L.T.
0
( ) ( ) ( )
i
AsH s q s q s
(deviations)
suppose q
0
is constant
0 q
0

...(2)
1
As (s) q
H(s)
(s) q AsH(s)
i
i

pure integrator (ramp)

for step change in q
i
More realistically, if q
0
is manipulated by a flow
control valve,
...(3)
0
h C q
v

nonlinear element
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Figure 2.5
R
V
: line resistance
linear ODE : eq. (4-50)
h
R
q
V
1

...(4)
1
h
R
q
dt
dh
A
V
i

...(5) h C q
V

if
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) a 5 ( h C q
dt
dh
A
V i

nonlinear ODE : eq. (4-74)
Substitute linearized expression of
(5) into (1):
The steady-state version of (6) is:
0 (7)
i v
q C h
1
(8)
i
dh
A q h
dt R

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Linearize nonlinear term (5)
And substitute in (5a):
(6)
1
h
R
h C q
dt
dh
A
v i


(6) minus (7) and let , noting that gives the
linearized model:
dh dh
dt dt

i i i
q q q

( )
h
R
h C
h
h
C
h C
h h
h
C h C
h h
dh
dq
q
h C q
v
v
v
v v
h
v
+
+

,
`

.
|
+

,
`

.
|
+

1
2
1
2
1
) (
Conclusions

Definition of transfer functions

Development of transfer functions

Properties of transfer functions

1
st
order process

2
nd
order process

Examples