Introduction to Meteorology

and Weather Forecasting

Instructor: Dr. Mohd Khalid Ansari

Mail ID: [email protected]
 Air Masses:
Type, Modification, and
Associated weather
Meteorology, Weather, & Climate
• Meteorology is the study of phenomena of the atmosphere
– includes the dynamics, physics, and chemistry of the
atmosphere. (from the Greek meteōros – ‘lofty’)
• More commonly thought of as restricted to the dynamics
and thermodynamics of the atmosphere as it affects human
life.
Air Masses
A body of air with more-or-less uniform physical Input of heat and moisture to atmosphere is
properties over horizontal distances of non-uniform. Creation of a uniform air mass
hundreds of kilometres achieved via:
• Temperature • Mixing
• Radiative processes
• Moisture content
• Time (3 – 7 days)
• lapse rate
Source regions: areas of extensive uniform
Properties and degree of uniformity depend on: surface conditions situated below quasi-
stationary high pressure systems.
• Source of the air
In low latitudes there are few strong
• History – air mass modification temperature gradients; air masses distinguished
• Age of air mass by moisture content – more difficult to
interpret.

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Air Mass Modification Processes
Thermodynamic Dynamic
• Surface heating/cooling • Turbulent mixing
– Change of temperature of – Increases uniformity of air
surface, or advection over mass. Very efficient close to
different surface surface.
• Addition of moisture • Large-scale lifting/descent
– Surface evaporation – Causes adiabatic changes of
– Evaporation of precipitation temperature
falling from higher level – May result in formation or
• Loss of moisture evaporation of clouds
– Condensation, precipitation
• Radiative heating/cooling
– slow compared to surface heat
exchange (up to 2 weeks)

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Air Mass Characterization
Air masses are classified according to
how they compare to the properties Also:
of the underlying surface and of
adjacent air masses. • Arctic (A)
• very cold
4 (sometimes 5) basic classifications • Frequently indistinguishable from polar
– combine source region and surface air masses in lower levels
type:
• Originates over polar icecaps rather than
• Maritime/marine (m) high latitude land masses.
• high moisture content
• Continental (c) Some classification schemes include indication
• typically low moisture of whether air is warmer (w) or cooler (k) than
• Tropical (T) underlying surface after air mass modification
• warm
has taken place; e.g. cPk, mPw.
• Polar (P)
• cold

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Continental Polar (cP)
Origin: continental anticyclones over Subsidence of air aloft (and
Siberia and northern Canada during associated adiabatic warming)
winter; Arctic basin (cA) when high combined with radiative cooling at
pressure dominant. low levels  pronounced inversion
No sources of cP in southern from surface to about 850 mb (~1
hemisphere. Antarctica is a source of km).
cA all year round. Low humidity results in generally low
Snow covered surface  cooling of cloud amounts.
surface layers, equilibrium vapour
pressure is low  low moisture
content (0.1 to 0.5 g/kg). Solar heating of land surface in
Cooling at surface  stable summer removes source of cold air.
stratification, limited mixing; allows
further cooling by radiation resulting
in very low temperatures.

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 H Continental Polar (cP)
Source: Siberia, very cold
in winter, hot and dry in
summer.
Summer: Warm & dry,
cloud free, except perhaps
at east coast where cool &
showery.
Track: overland,
short track over Winter: Snow near east
North Sea coast; occasional snow
showers in west. Very cold
& strong easterly winds

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Maritime Polar (mP)
Origin: In northern hemisphere mP During initial flow over water, cP is
results primarily from modification of warmed and moistened. High surface
cP by flow over oceans: Siberia heat and moisture fluxes 
flowing over north Pacific, northern instability and strong convection;
Canada & Greenland flowing over flow is very turbulent, increasing
north Atlantic. amounts of cumulus form, often in
In summer the Arctic icecap – streets aligned with wind.
significant areas of melt water, and Downwind, large cumulus organised
open leads in ice, provide effective in first closed, then open cells. Air
water surface. mass now cool, moist mP, extensive
cloud cover.
In southern hemisphere: oceans
surrounding Antarctica.
In winter modified cA provides
colder mP than modified cP.
Cool and moist, extensive cloud
cover.

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 Maritime Polar (mP)
Source: North Canada &
L Greenland. Very cold.
Summer: Heavy showers,
thunderstorms over high
ground.
Winter: Heavy showers in
Track: cool, moist, north-west; clear skies in
unstable east at night giving frost.
Dry in lee of mountains.

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Returning Polar Maritime
Source: North Canada.
Very cold and dry
Summer: Very warm,
stratus clouds in south­west,
squally showers & storms L
inland.
Winter: stratus cloud,
showers over high ground,
particularly in west.

Track: warmer & wetter

than mP

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Arctic Maritime (mA)
Source: Arctic seas / ice­
Track: short; warm & moist
at surface, cold aloft; unstable
L
cap. Very cold.
Summer: Cold, frequent
heavy showers.
Winter: Very cold; strong
winds from north and north­
west. Heavy snow showers,
particularly in north and
coastal areas. Cold & bright
in lake district and South
Wales in lee of mountains
to north.

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Maritime Tropical (mT)
Origin: Oceanic subtropical high Modification of warm air is usually
pressure cells – mid Atlantic (Azores slow.
High), much of pacific. 50% of Cooling from surface as air moves to
southern hemisphere is a source of higher latitudes results in formation
mT. of advection fog. If wind speed is
High temperatures, and high high, mechanical mixing produces a
humidity in lower layers. Stable or deeper boundary layer (few hundred
near neutral stratification. metres) and low stratiform cloud
forms – stratus or stratocumulus.
Forced ascent at land can result in
thick cloud and heavy rain.

Advection fog, Golden Gate Bridge

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Maritime Tropical (mT)
Source: warm tropical
oceans
L
Summer: South­west winds;
warm & sunny inland. Low
stratus clouds round west
coast.
Winter: Stratus clouds/hill
fog/drizzle clearing to the
north­east. Warm, muggy,
with prolonged rainfall in
westerly mountains.

Track: moist at surface

H
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Continental Tropical (cT)
Origin: Continental parts of Modification during transit over
subtropical high pressure cells (e.g. water (e.g. from N. Africa moving
north Africa) or regions of generally over Mediterranean into Europe):
light, variable winds & subsidence in picks up lots of water vapour,
upper troposphere over major lowering the density of humidified
landmasses during summer (e.g. air and triggering strong convection.
central Asia). Large cumulus and thunderstorms
Strong solar heating of land mass form.
results in unstable stratification and
strong convection. Low humidity
coupled with subsidence means
limits cloud development and
preciptitation.
In the northern hemisphere winter,
north Africa is the only source of cT.

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Continental Tropical (cT)
Source: North Africa – hot
and dry.
Summer only: Heat­wave
weather, hazy with
occasional thunderstorm.

Track: overland with

short sea track

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Summary
• “Air masses” are large regions of air with distinct properties
• Originate in high-pressure regions, and move towards low pressure
• Modified by changes in surface properties, and radiative
warming/cooling
• Associated with different general weather conditions over UK

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