Elementary Topics

 Introduction
 Laws for Addition and Subtraction
 Absolute Value
 Computation of Products
 Division
 Computation of Sums and Differences
 Signs of Groupings / Similar Terms
 Background for Operations on Fractions / Elementary Operations on Fractions
 Positive Integral Exponents / Index Laws
 Multiplication of Polynomials
 Fundamental Equation of Division / Division of Polynomials
Introduction
 Number System – any number system consists of arbitrarily invented symbols called numbers, for
which operations are defined as the basis of a mathematical game played with the numbers.
 Natural Numbers – (or counting numbers) are 1, 2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,..etc. There are infinitely many natural
numbers. The set of natural numbers, {1,2,3,4,5,…}, is sometimes written N for short.
 Integers – are the set of real numbers consisting of the natural number, their additive inverses and
zero. {…, -5,-4,-3, -2, -1, 0, 1,2,3,4,5,…}. The set of integers is sometimes written as J or Z for
short.
 Rational Numbers – are those numbers which can be expressed as ratio between two integers. For
example, the fractions 1/3 and 111/8 are both rational numbers. All integers are included in the
rational numbers, since any integer Z can be written as the ratio Z/1.
All decimals which terminate are rational numbers (since 8.27 can be written as 827/100).
Decimalss which have a repeating pattern after some point are also rationals: example 0.0833333… =
1/12.
 Irrational Numbers – is a number that cannot be written as ratio (fraction) In decimal forms it never
repeats. Example the square root of 2 is an irrational number, meaning its decimal equivalent goes
forever, with no repeating pattern
 Real Numbers – is the set of numbers containing all of the rational numbers and all of the irrational
numbers. The real numbers are the numbers on the number line.
 Complex Numbers – are the set {a + bi|a and b are real numbers}, where i is the imaginary uni. √-1.

Laws for Addition and Multiplication

For any given number of real numbers there shall be quantities called their sum and their product.
And by definition, any sum or product of just positive numbers has the same value in algebra as in
arithmetic.
 To multiply a set of numbers means to find the value of their product, and this operation is called
multiplication. Each of the given numbers is called a factor of their product.

 To take the sum the numbers are said to be added, and refer to the operation as addition. In a
sum, each numbers, with its attached sign, is called a term of the sum.

 Multiplication is commutative, or the product of two numbers is the same in whatever order they
are multiplied. That is ab = ba.
 Multiplication is associative, or the product of three or more numbers is the same however they are
grouped in multiplying. That is abc = (ab)(c) = (ac)(b) = (a)(bc)

 Addition is commutative, or the sum of two numbers is the same in whatever order they are added.
That is, a + b = b + a.

 Addition is associative, or the sum of three or more numbers is the same in whatever order they are
grouped in adding. That is, a + b + c = (a + b) + c = a + ( b + c) = (a + c) + b

 Multiplication is distributive with respect to addition, or a(b + c) = ab + ac

Absolute value – define as for any positive number or zero as the number itself, while for a
negative number as the given number with its sign changed. The absolute value of a number H
frequently is represented by |H|, is read “ the absolute value of H”
Computation of products and quotients
Rule 1: Multiply the absolute values of the factors to find the absolute value of the product and attach a
plus sign or a minus sign according as there are an even or an odd number of negative factors.

Rule 2: To divide b by c, that is to find b/c, where c ≠ 0:

a). Obtain the absolute value of the quotient by computing the quotient of the absolute values.
b). If b ≠ 0, give the result a plus sign or a minus sign according as b and c have like signs or unlike signs.
Computations of sums and differences
 Theorem 1: To subtract b from a, add –b to a. That is, the difference, x, of a and b is given by
x = a – b.

 Rule 1: To add two numbers with like signs, add their absolute values and attached their common
sign.

 Rule 2: To add two numbers with unlike signs, subtract the smaller absolute value from the larger,
and prefix the sign of the number having the larger absolute value.
Signs of grouping
Parentheses, ( ), brackets [ ], braces { }, and vinculum, ‾, are used to enclose terms whose sum is to act
as a single number. In general remarks, the word parentheses will refer to any of these symbols.
Rule 1: In removing or inserting parentheses preceded by a plus sign, rewrite the indicated terms
unchanged.

Rule 2: In removing or inserting parentheses preceded by a minus sign, rewrite the included terms with
their signs changed.

Similar terms
Two terms with the same literal parts are called similar terms.
Rule : To collect similar terms, add their numerical coefficients and multiply the result by the common
literal part.
Background for operations /elementary operations on fractions
 In arithmetic, if a, b, c, d are positive integers, the following equations are specified to be true of
equality, multiplication, and addition respectively, for a/b and c/d.
a/b = c/d means that ad = bc,
a/b * c/d = ac/bc,
a/b + c/d =

 Fundamental Principle. The value of a fraction is not altered if both numerator and denominator are
multiplied, or divided, by the same number, not zero.
Rule 1: To reduce a fraction to lowest terms, divide numerator and denominator by all their common
factors.

Rule 2: To multiply on fraction by another, multiply the numerators for new numerator, and the
denominators for a new denominator.

Rule 3: To divide one fraction by another, invert the divisor and multiply the dividend by this inverted
divisor.

Rule 4: To multiply a fraction by a number, multiply the numerator by the number. To divide a fraction
by a number, multiply the denominator by the number.
Positive integral exponents / Index laws
 If m is any positive integer, we define am by the equation
am = a•a•a•a•••a, (m factors a)
Where am is called the mth power of the base a and m the exponent of this power.
Rule 1: In multiplying two powers of the same base, add the exponents. am an = am+n

Rule 2: In obtaining a power of a power, multiply the exponents. (am )n = amn

Rule 3: To obtain a power of a product, raise each factor of the product to the specified power and
multiply. (abc )n = anbncn

Rule 3: To obtain a power of a fraction, raise the numerator and denominator to the specified power
and divide. (a/b)n = (an / bn )
Multiplication of polynomials
 An algebraic sum is called:
a). Monomial if the sum has just one term,
b). Binomial if there are just two terms,
c). Trinomial if there are just three terms, and
d). Polynomial if there more than one term in general.
Rule 1: To multiply a polynomial by a single term, multiply each term of the polynomial by the single
term and add the results.

Rule 2: To form the product of two polynomials, multiply one of them by each term of the other and
collect similar terms.
Fundamental equation of division / Division of polynomials
 At any stage of the usual long division process in arithmetic, or algebra, the remainder and partial
quotient satisfy
= (quotient) + or
dividend = (quotient)(divisor) + remainder
Rule 1: To divide a polynomial by a single term, divide each term of the polynomial by the divisor and
combine results.

Rule 2: Division of one polynomial by another:

1). Arrange each polynomial in descending powers of some common terms.
2). Divide each first term of the dividend by the first term of the divisor and write the results as the first
term of the quotient.
3). Multiply the whole divisor by the first term of the quotient and subtract the product from the dividend.
4). Consider the remainder obtained in step 3 as a new dividend and repeat steps 2 and 3.