Chapter 3: Modeling Electrical and

Electromechanical Systems
• Electronic circuits and electromechanical devices such as solenoids and actuators are used extensively by mechanical
engineers for instrumentation and sensors
• We will briefly define the properties of electrical circuit elements and develop mathematical models for electrical systems
• Electrical elements can be grouped into two categories:

– Passive elements: elements that cannot introduce energy into a system. Passive elements can only store or dissipate energy. Passive elements include resistors,
capacitors, and inductors

– Active elements: elements that can introduce energy into a system. Voltage and current sources are active elements.

• Inertia, stiffness and friction element are also passive elements for mechanical system.
• Force and motion inputs are active element for mechanical system.
 3.2 Electrical Element Laws: Resistor

• Resistors (R) hinder the flow of current and dissipate electrical energy by
converting it into heat (analogous to friction elements)

• Voltage “drop” across resistor:

Ohm’s law
eR  RI Ideal linear resistor

eR = voltage across resistor (volts, V), I = current (amps, A),

R = resistance (ohms, ) Analogous to friction coff. b

• Power dissipated by a resistor (power = eRI in watts)  f  bx 2

 R  eR I   RI 2 Where I  q
 3.2 Electrical Element Laws: Capacitor
• Capacitors (C) are two conductors separated by a
dielectric (insulator)

• Charge-voltage relation for capacitor: q  CeC (Ideal capacitor)

• Because time-rate of charge is current: q  I  Ce C Fundamental capacitor ODE

• Voltage “drop” across a capacitor: t

1
eC (t )  eC (0)   I ( )d
C0

• Energy stored in a capacitor: (Power is time rate of energy)

1 2
 C  CeC  Power is c  Ce c ec = current x voltage
2
 3.2 Electrical Element Laws: Inductor
• Inductors (L) store energy in the magnetic field that is
created by current flowing through the inductor

• Ideal inductor:   LI L Magnetic flux linkage, webers, Wb

• Faraday’s law of magnetic induction states that a coil of wire

will have a voltage difference induced across it if the
magnetic flux is changing with time
 e

• Voltage across inductor: L
ideal inductor
eL    LI L (fixed L, inductance)

• Energy stored by inductor: Fundamental inductor ODE

1 2
 L  LI L  Power is c  LIL I L = voltage x current
2
 Electrical Systems: Sources

• Ideal voltage source provides the specified input

voltage ein(t) to the circuit regardless of the amount of
current being drawn from it.

Voltage source

• Ideal current source that provides the specified input

current Iin(t) to the circuit regardless of the amount of
voltage that may be required.
– The arrow symbol in the current source denotes the positive
convention for current flow

Current source
 3.3 Electrical Systems

• For electrical systems, the important “dynamic variables” are voltage e and current I

• Furthermore, the energy stored by capacitors and inductors depends on the capacitor voltage eC
and inductor current IL, , respectively.

• The mathematical models of electrical systems can be written in terms of eC and IL (see
fundamental ODEs!)

• The voltages and currents in an electrical circuit that are not eC or IL (e.g., voltage drop across a
resistor) can be written in terms of the important dynamic variables by using Kirchhoff’s laws
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
• Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of all voltage
across the elements for any close loop is equal to zero.

Summing clockwise:

 e1  e2  e3  ein (t )  0

Moving across a passive element from (+) to (-) (in the direction of current flow)
or moving across a voltage source from (+) to (-) is a voltage drop; e < 0

Moving across a passive element from (-) to (+) (opposite direction of current
flow) or moving across a voltage source from (-) to (+) is a voltage rise; e > 0
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
• Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of all currents entering and
leaving node is equal to zero
– A node is defined as a junction of three or more wires
– We choose to assign a positive sign convention for current entering a node and a negative
convention for current leaving a node

Applying KCL at the node:

I1  I 2  I 3  I 4  0
 Modeling Electrical Systems
• Mathematical models of electrical systems can be derived using a systematic two-
step process:
– Write the corresponding first-order ODE for each energy storage element (capacitor or inductor)

Start with Ce C  I C (capacitor) or eL  LI L (inductor)

– Use Kirchhoff’s laws to express the unknown voltages (such as eL) and currents (such as IC) in
terms of either the dynamic variables associated with the energy-storage elements ( eC or IL) and/or
the sources (inputs)

 All ODEs should be solely in terms of eC , IL , ein(t) , or Iin(t)

 Modeling Electrical Systems:
Example 3.1
• Derive the mathematical model of the simple RL circuit

Start with 1st-order ODE for the sole

energy-storage element:

LI L  eL

• Now use KVL to find expression for inductor voltage eL

 eL  eR  ein (t )  0 Clockwise KVL

Sub KVL into 1st-order ODE LIL  RI L  ein (t ) 1 energy storage element
 1st-order model
(use Ohm’s law for eR )
Model
 Modeling Electrical Systems:
Example 3.2
• Derive the mathematical model of the simple RLC circuit

System dynamic parameters: ec , I L , ein (t )

Start with 1st-order ODEs for the

energy-storage elements:

Capacitor Ce C  I L Inductor LI L  eL

• Now use KVL to find expression for inductor voltage eL

 eR  eL  eC  ein (t )  0 Clockwise KVL
2 energy storage elements
Ce C  I L  0 Two first order linear
Sub KVL into inductor ODE
(use Ohm’s law for eR ) LIL  RI L  eC  ein (t ) coupled ODES
 2nd-order model
Model
 Modeling Electrical Systems:
eR  eL  eC  ein (t )  0

 1
 RI L  LI L  eC (0)   I L dt  ein (t )  0
C
Time derivative

  1
LI L  RI L  I L  ein (t )
C

Single 2nd order ODE= two 1st order ODEs

LIL  RI L  eC  ein (t ) dt LIL  RIL  eC  ein (t )

  1
LI L  RI L  I L  ein (t )
Ce C  I L  0 eC  I L / C C
 Modeling Electrical Systems:
Example 3.4
• Derive the mathematical model of the parallel circuit

Start with 1st-order ODE for the

(sole) energy-storage element:

CeC  I C Capacitor

• Now use KCL at Node A to find expression for current IC

I in (t )  I C  I 2  0  CeC  I in (t )  I 2
Capacitor ODE with substitution for IC

 We need an expression for right-hand loop current I2 (use KVL)

 Modeling Electrical Systems:
Example 3.4 (2)
• Use KVL around right-hand loop (clockwise)
 eR2  eC  eR1  0
I in (t )  I C  I 2  0
 R2 I 2  eC  R1 I C  0 KCL result

Substitution of KCL (IC) results will yield

 R2 I 2  eC  R1 ( I in (t )  I 2 )  0
Ce C  I in (t )  I 2 capacitor ODE
Simplify

R1  R2 I 2  eC  R1I in (t ) R1  R2 CeC  eC  R2 I in (t ) Model

1 energy storage element  1st-order model

Solve for I2 and sub into capacitor ODE
 3.4 Operational-Amplifier Circuits
• An operational amplifier (“op amp”) is a modern electronic device that is used to
amplify (“gain”) an input voltage signal

• Op amps can also be used in circuits to construct filters that remove a desired
range of frequencies from the input signal

Output voltage:

eO  K eB  e A 

Voltage gain K ~ 105 V/V

Op amp
 Ideal Op Amp
• Assumptions for an ideal op amp:
– The input terminals of the op amp draw negligible current
– The voltage difference at the input terminals is zero
– The gain K is infinite

eO  K eB  e A 

• We shall see that using a “negative feedback” connection from the output
terminal to the negative terminal causes the second idealized condition
eB  e A  0
 Op-Amp Circuit: Example 3.6

• Derive the relationship between input and output voltages

• Because the ground has zero

voltage eB = 0

• Because the voltage

difference at the input is zero

input voltage eA = 0

eB  e A  0
 Op-Amp Circuit: Example 3.6 (2)

•Apply Kirchhoff’s current law KCL

at the top node:

I1  I A  I 2  0

•But IA ~ 0 for an ideal op amp

so I1= I2
ein (t )  eA eA  eO
Using Ohm’s law: 
R1 R2

or R2 ein (t )  eA   R1 eA  eO 
 Op-Amp Circuit: Example 3.6 (3)

• Rearrange the previous equation

and solve for eA

R2 R1
eA  ein (t )  eO
R1  R2 R1  R2

• Sub this expression into the op-amp

equation (let eB = 0)

KR2 KR1
eO  K eB  eA    ein (t )  eO
R1  R2 R1  R2
 Op-Amp Circuit: Example 3.6 (4)

• Rearrange the previous equation

and solve for eO
 KR2
eO  ein (t )
R1  R2  KR1

• Finally, take the limit with large gain

K 

 R2
eO  ein (t ) “Inverting amplifier”
R1 Output voltage has opposite sign of ein(t)
 Active and passive filter

Passive filter: Low pass, high pass, band pass, band stop (notch filter)
RC/RL circuit.

Active filter: Low pass, high pass, band pass, band stop (notch filter)
RC/RL and op amp.

Positive power supply

(Positive rail)

Non-inverting
Input terminal
Output termina

Inverting input
terminal
Negative power supply
(Negative rail)
RL And RC passive low and high
Filters.. summary
Active low pass filter Equivalent circuits of
low pass filter

C1
R2

R1 R2
R2
R1

C1

Gain

vout  R 2  1
  
vin  R1  1    
2 2
Active low pass filter
Equivalent circuits of
High pass filter

R2 R2
C1
R1 C1 R1

R1

vout  R 2  1
  
vin  R1   1 
 1  2 2 
   

Gain
 R C2

Active Band Pass filter C1 R1 R

R2

High pass filter Low pass filter

Low pass filter

High pass filter

Gain of the filter:

 R2 
  
 R1 
 Active Low pass filter

R 2  10k C1  .01 F R1  2.5k

1
Fc  Cut off frequency
2 R1C1

Active low pass filter Fc  6.3k Cut off frequency

With unity gain
Active Low pass filter: Demonstration

Input single Output single at cutoff frequency: 6.3k

Amplitude: 1.01v Amplitude: 0.645
Active Low pass filter: Demonstration

Active Low pass filter

Output response
 Op-Amp Circuit:
Example 3.7

• Derive the relationship between

input and output voltages

• Because the ground has zero voltage

eB = 0, and eA = 0

• KCL at node yields

0
I1  I A  I 2  I 3  I 2  I 3
 Op-Amp Circuit:
Example 3.7 (2)

• Substitute Ohm’s law for currents

I1 and I2 and use the 1st-order capacitor
ODE for current I3

0
I1  I A  I 2  I 3  I 2  I 3

ein (t )  eA eA  eO d
  C eA  eO 
R1 R2 dt

I1 I2 I3
 Op-Amp Circuit:
Example 3.7 (3)

• Finally, sub eA = 0 due to negative

feedback connection; hence

ein (t )  eA eA  eO d
  C eA  eO 
R1 R2 dt

ein (t ) eO d
  C (eO )
R1 R2 dt
1st-order ODE model of op-amp circuit

 R2 If capacitor C is removed we obtain the

R2Ce O  eO  ein (t )
R1 inverting amplifier from Example 3.6
 3.5 Electromechanical Systems
• By combining mechanical and electrical elements, we can construct a variety of
useful electromechanical (EM) devices

• These devices convert energy from one form to another (mechanical energy to
electrical energy or electrical energy to mechanical energy)

• Applications/examples
– Motors and generators
– Actuators
– Sensors
– Speakers and microphones
Linear
solenoid

Rotary-to-linear actuator
 Current-Magnetic Field Interaction

• Current-magnetic field interactions are described by Faraday’s laws of induction

and Lorentz’s force law

• Three basic relationships between current and magnetism:

– An electric current establishes a magnetic field
– A current-carrying wire in a magnetic field has a force exerted on it
– A wire moving relative to a magnetic field will have a voltage induced between the ends of
the wire
 Current-Carrying Wire Establishes
Magnetic Field

The Biot-Savart law describes the magnetic field B, where the direction
of the field lines is defined by applying the “right-hand rule”
 Magnetically Induced Force

Induced force: F  I  B

For wire perpendicular to magnetic field:

F  BI

B = magnetic flux density, Wb/m2 or tesla

 = length of wire in field, m
 Induced Voltage on Moving Wire

Induced voltage: eb  v  B   

If moving wire remains perpendicular to

magnetic field:

eb  Bv

v = velocity of wire, m/s

 = length of wire, m
eb = “back emf,” V
 DC Motor

• A direct-current or DC motor is an
electromechanical system that converts
electrical energy to mechanical energy
(rotational motion) by utilizing the basic
current-magnetism relationships

• A DC motor consists of an armature (or

rotor) and a magnetic field established
by the stator
– The armature or rotor disk is wrapped
with a coil of wire, or armature windings
DC Motor working principle
 DC Motor (2)
• The armature windings in the “top half” of
the rotor carry current flowing “into” the
page, while windings in the “bottom half”
carry current flowing “out” of the page

• The radial magnetic field lines B remain

perpendicular to the armature windings, and
therefore the induced force on each
individual wire is tangent to the rotor’s
surface

Total electromagnetic torque on the rotor

Tm  Fr  BIr
where r is the rotor’s radius and  is the total length of the wire windings
 DC Motor (3)
• If the magnetic field intensity B is constant
the three terms Br can be lumped into a
single constant,
K m  Bℓr

Total electromagnetic
torque on the rotor
Tm  K m I

The constant Km is typically called the “motor-torque constant”

and has units of N-m/A
 DC Motor
600
Current Values
Filter current values
current (mA)

400

200

0 Filtration and
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Calculation of
sample torque from Current
-3 by using KM
x 10
8
Torque (Nm)

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
sample
 DC Motor (4)
• Angular motion of the rotor produces an induced voltage opposite the direction of the
armature current (back emf, eb )

Back emf: eb  Bv  Br

• If the magnetic field B is constant we can define a new constant,

K b  Br
eb  K b Back emf for DC motor
• The constant Kb is typically called the “back-emf constant” and has units of V-s/rad
– Although it is not apparent, the units for Km (N-m/A) and Kb (V-s/rad) are equivalent since 1 V = 1
kg-m2/(s3-A) = 1 N-m/(s-A)
 DC Motor: Example

Apply KVL to armature circuit

 eR  eL  eb  ein (t )  0

Next, substitute the appropriate electrical element laws:

La Ia  Ra I a  K b  ein (t ) Electrical system model

 DC Motor: Example (2)
Free-body diagram

Apply Newton’s 2nd law to the FBD:

Combine the electrical + mechanical models:

La Ia  Ra I a  K b  ein (t ) Complete DC motor

model 3rd-order,
J  b  K m I a  TL coupled linear system
Solenoid Actuator
 Solenoid Actuator (2)

Energizing the voltage source produces a current in the coil which establishes a magnetic
field

The EM force attracts the armature (plunger) toward the center of the coil

For a hydraulic valve actuator, the push-pin is connected to a mass

(valve) which is re-centered using a return spring (k)
 Solenoid Actuator (3)

Coil inductance L(x) is typically a nonlinear function of position x

c L0
L( x )  
d  x 1 x / d
AN 2
where inductance with x = 0 is L0 
l
 Solenoid Actuator (4)

Apply KVL to the armature circuit:  eR  eL  ein (t )  0

Solenoid inductor voltage:   eL

Magnetic flux linkage is   L( x) I

 dL dI dL dx dI
Time derivative:  IL  IL  Lx x I  L( x) I
dt dt dx dt dt
 Solenoid Actuator (5)

c L0
L( x)  
d  x 1 x / d
Using compact notation:   Lx x I  L( x) I
 eR  eL  ein (t )  0
dL L0
where the change in inductance is Lx  
dx d 1  x / d 2   eL
Finally, sub above expression for eL and Ohm’s law for eR

L( x) I  RI  ein (t )  Lx x I Electrical model (nonlinear!)

 Solenoid Actuator (6)

Mechanical FBD

Applying Newton’s 2nd law to the FBD:    F  Fem  kx  bx  mx

We need an expression for EM force, Fem

Force* Incremental work = incremental energy change

Fem dx  d
Energy for
d 1 2
inductor
or, Fem  where inductor energy is   LI
dx 2
 Solenoid Actuator (7)
Taking the derivative with respect to position, the EM force is

1 dL 2
Fem  I Nonlinear function!
2 dx
Finally, combine the electrical + mechanical models to obtain the complete solenoid
actuator model:

3rd-order, coupled,
L( x) I  RI  ein (t )  Lx x I nonlinear system

1 2 [ Need to sub for L(x)

 
mx  bx  kx  Lx I and Lx ]
2
The “dynamic variables” are current “I”and position x
 Electrostatic Micro-Actuator

Energizing the voltage source produces an electrostatic force that pulls the drive arm
to the closure arm (inter-locking “fingers” or “comb-drive”)

These devices work at the micro-scale:

“MEMS” devices

Deflections are on the order of

microns: 1 m = 10-6 m
 Electrostatic Micro-Actuator (2)

Charging the interlocking comb plates (capacitor) produces an electrostatic

force Fes

n 0 A n 0 ( x0  x) w
Capacitance changes with position: C ( x)  
d d

Begin with the capacitor’s charge-voltage relation: q  C ( x)eC

 Electrostatic Micro-Actuator (3)

Take time derivative of charge to obtain current:

dC deC  C x x eC  C ( x )e C  I
q  eC  C
dt dt

dC n 0 w
where the derivative of capacitance is Cx  
dx d

Current would be same: Current through resistor=current through capacitor

From Ohm’s law, eR / R

 Electrostatic Micro-Actuator (3)

eR / R

Apply KVL around the RC circuit:

 eR  eC  ein (t )  0

Using KVL we sub eR = ein(t) – eC

Finally, sub above expression for current in top equation

RC ( x)e C  eC  ein (t )  RC x x eC Nonlinear electrical model

 Electrostatic Micro-Actuator (4)
The electrostatic micro-actuator mechanical FBD is identical
to the solenoid FBD, and the result is

mx  bx  kx  Fes

We derive the electrostatic force, Fes , using work-energy:

d 1 2
Fes  where capacitor energy is   CeC
dx 2

Taking the derivative with respect to position, the ES force is

1 dC 2
Fes  eC
2 dx
 Electrostatic Micro-Actuator (5)

Finally, combine the electrical + mechanical models to obtain the complete

electrostatic micro-actuator model:

RC ( x)e C  eC  ein (t )  RC x x eC 3rd-order, coupled,

nonlinear system
1
mx  bx  kx  C x eC2
2 [ Need to sub for C(x)
and Cx ]

The “dynamic variables” are capacitor voltage eC and position x

 Chapter 3: Summary
• We introduced a systematic approach for developing the mathematical model of
electrical and electromechanical systems

• First, we presented the physical laws that govern the interaction between charge,
current, and voltage for resistor, capacitor, and inductor elements

• Voltage across a capacitor and current through an inductor are the two dynamic
variables of interest

• We showed how to model electrical systems that contained an operational amplifier

(or, “op amp”)

• Mathematical models of electromechanical systems contain electrical and

mechanical models obtained via KVL, KCL, and Newton’s 2nd law