Dental Ceramics

1. Introduction
2. Composition
3. Classification
4. Manufacturing of dental ceramics
5. Dispensing/ manipulation
6. Properties of dental ceramics
7. PFM
8. Methods of strengthening dental ceramic
(PFM/PJC)
9. Newer methods/ recent advances
INTRODUCTION
• Of the three basic materials –
• ceramics, metal and polymers;
• Ceramics were the last to move into the high-
technology phase of development.
• During the past decade, the demand for non-
metallic highly biocompatible dental restorative
material has, however markedly increased.
• Ceramics are also regarded as bio compatible and
inert materials.
• The introduction of bonding procedures and new
luting techniques has increased the general
acceptance of these ceramic systems .
 HISTORICAL
PERSPECTIVE OF
 
PORCELAIN
 EARLY HISTORY
• Ceramics are thought to be the first materials
ever made by man.
• Early fabrication of ceramic articles dates back to
23,000 BC.
• Historically, three basic types of ceramic materials
were developed;
• Earthernware,
• Stoneware, &
• Whiteware.
• Ceramics are also considered to be the earliest
group of inorganic materials to be structurally
modified by man.
• The first ceramics fabricated by man were
earthenware pots.
• The earliest glazing technique was a Sumerian invention
made famous about 4000 B.C. as Egyptian blue faience.
• This glaze was not like later ones, a melted pre-mix of
glass forming materials, but was made by a type of
cementation process.
• Potash was drawn by capillarity to react with the surface
of a preformed body of siliceous particles to form a glassy
coat of copper-coloured eutectic silicate.
• This process is still in use in Iran today
• Chinese Porcelain :- In
contrast to what was
happening in Europe,
stoneware had been
produced in China by 100
B.C, and by the 10th century
A.D, ceramic technology in
China had advanced to a
highly sophisticated stage
• In 1375, porcelain was
copied in Florence, and
rapidly became popular
throughout Europe.
• As trade with the far east grew, this
infinitely superior material came from to
Europe from China, during the 17th century.
• However, the trade with the far –east could
not satisfy this demand; so strenuous efforts
were made by the European pottery
industry to imitate the Chinese porcelain;
but it was found impossible to reproduce
the translucency of Chinese porcelain, and
their product more closely resembled
northern Chinese stoneware .
 History of porcelain use in dentistry
• The history of porcelain used as a dental material goes
back nearly 200 years.
• The use of porcelain in dentistry was first mentioned by
Pierre Fauchard.
• The superior surface and colouring qualities were used by
fusing the material to gold or silver.
• 1728 – Pierre Fauchard, a French dentist first proposed
the use of porcelain in dentistry. He suggested the use of
jeweler’s enamel to fabricate artificial teeth.
• 1760 – Fauchard, Bordet and other dentists constructed
gum colour enamel and gum section teeth.
STRUCTURE &
COMPOSITION
• Ceramics is a term generally applied to all useful or
ornamental objects that are baked.
• The term ‘Ceramics’ is derived from the Greek
word ‘Keramos’ (which literally means art of
pottery or burnt stuff/ earthernware); meaning
‘pertaining to pottery, especially as an art’;
• Ceramic art comprises of all art objects made of
baked clay such as vases, urns, cups, statues etc,
and includes all varieties of artistic earthernware
and porcelain.
• True Porcelain, which appears translucent, vitreous
and basically white, is a kind of pottery formed
from a specific type of clay, quartz or quartz
substitutes.
• Ceramics are compounds of metallic elements and non-
metallic elements such as oxides, nitrides, and silicates.
• ‘A Ceramic, is therefore an earthy material usually of a
silicate nature, and may be defined as: A COMBINATION
OF ONE OR MORE METALS, WITH A NON-METALLIC
ELEMENT, USUALLY OXYGEN (Gilman, 1987).
• Ceramics from the finest ‘porcelains or china’
earthern-ware are composed of essentially the
same materials, the principle difference being in
the proportion of the primary ingredients (such as
feldspar, silica and kaolin/ clay) and firing
procedures (temperature, method etc).
• Other compounds such as potash, soda or lime are
often added to give special properties.
• Ceramic, dental - a compound of metals
(such as aluminium, calcium, lithium,
magnesium, potassium, sodium, tin,
titanium, and zirconium) and non-metals
(such as silicon, boron, fluorine, and
oxygen) that may be used as a
• single structural component, such as when
used in a CAD-CAM inlay, or
• as one of several layers that are used in the
fabrication of a ceramic-based prosthesis.
• Dental ceramics are formulated to provide one or more of
the following properties:
• castability
Techniques of forming
• moldability,
prosthesis
• injectability,
• color,
• opacity,
• translucency,
• machinability,
• abrasion resistance,
• strength, and
• toughness.
• Note: all porcelains and glass ceramics are ceramics, but
not all ceramics are porcelains or glass-ceramics.
In dentistry, three different types of porcelains compositions are
used (depending on their applications)

Denture Tooth Feldspathic Aluminous

Porcelain Porcelain porcelain

Begins as a mixture Used for ceramo- Used in PJC’s. It

of powders of metal restorations; is composed of
feldspar, clay and begins as a mixture mixture similar to
quartz. (This is of powders of that of feldspathic
referred to as high potassium feldspar porcelain with
fusing porcelain in and glass. It can also increased amounts of
some dental material be used for aluminium oxide
text books) fabricating porcelain
veneers and inlays.
• These three types of dental porcelains also
contain pigments and opacifying agents, to
create various shades and translucencies.
• After baking , all types of porcelain contain
similar components.
• Small crystals (Leucite and/or other
alumino-silicate crystals) embedded in a
silicate glass (a non-crystalline amorphous
matrix); however, the relative amounts of
crystal and glass depend on the specific
type of porcelain in question.
 Structure
Ceramics can appear as either crystalline or amorphous solids
(also called glasses); Thus, ceramics can be broadly classified as :

Ceramics

Non-Crystalline Ceramics Crystalline Ceramics

(Amorophous solids or glasses ) E.g. Aluminous porcelain
E.g. Feldspathic porcelain (Reinforced porcelain)
(Traditional porcelain)
• This is a composite of crystalline minerals (feldspar, silica
and alumina ) in an amorphous (non-crystalline) matrix of
glass (vitreous phase).
• Their structures are characterized by chains of (SiO4)4−
tetrahedra in which Si4+ cations are positioned at the
center of each tetrahedron with O− anions at each of the
four corners.
• The resulting structure is not close-packed and it exhibits
both covalent and ionic bonds.
 Composition of Dental Ceramics
Component % Function
Feldspar
(naturally occurring 75- Itmelts
is the lowest fusing component, which
1 minerals composed of first and flows during firing, initiating
85 these components into a solid mass.
potash(K2O),
soda [Na2O]

1. Strengthens the fired porcelain restoration

12- 2. Remains unchanged at the temperature
2 Silica (Quartz)
22
normally used in firing porcelain and thus
contribute stability to the mass during
heating

1. Used as a binder
2. Increases moldability of the unfired
3 Kaolin 4 porcelain
3. Imparts opacity to the finished porcelain
product
 Composition of Dental Ceramics

Component % Function

Glass modifiers, 1. Added to provide porcelain at different

firing temperatures.
4 e.g. K, Na, or Ca oxides Minute 2. Responsible for lowering the softening
or basic oxides temperature of glass and increase fluidity.

To obtain the delicate shade necessary to

5 Color pigments or frits, traces
simulate the natural teeth.

6 Zr/Ce/Sn oxides Traces To develop the appropriate opacity .

7 Uranium oxide Traces Acts as opacifier.

 1. Feldspars
• These are a group of naturally occurring minerals, which
are complex alkali aluminium silicate.
• They are found in many parts of the world, and in
nature they break down under the action of water and
carbon-dioxide to form kaolin and alkali carbonates.
• They have a crystalline structure and are opaque in
nature with an indefinite colour between gray and pink.
• Types of feldspar :
• Ø (Soda feldspar) – Sodium alumina ( Na2OAl2O3, 2SiO2,
2H2O) decreases fusion temperature
• Ø (Potash feldspar) – Potassium aluminum silicate ( K2O,
Al2O3, 6SiO2) increases the viscosity of glass.
• Natural feldspars are never pure and the ratio of
soda (Na2O) to potash (K2O) may vary; which
affects the properties:
• In that the soda tends to lower the fusion
temperature and the potash increases the
viscosity of the molten glass.
Role of feldspar.
•  Glass phase formation : During firing, the feldspar
fuses and forms a glassy phase that softens and
flows slightly allowing the porcelain powder
particles to coalesce together.
• The glassy phase forms a translucent glassy matrix
between the other components in the dense solid.
 2. Silica
• It is one of the most abundant elements on earth
and can exist in many different forms such as
crystalline materials like :
• Quartz, Cristobalite, Tridymite and amorphous
• Pure Quartz crystals (SiO2) are used for
manufacturing dental porcelain by selecting
uniformly light-coloured pieces of quartz free
from traces of iron which are ground or ball
milled to the finest grain size possible.
Silica
• Quartz (crystalline silica) used in porcelain
as a filler and strengthening agent.
• Because it has a high melting point, it also
provided a high strength framework for
other ingredients during firing and helps
to maintain the form (shape) of a
freestanding object during firing.
 3. Kaolin ( White China Clay)
• Essentially consists of the mineral Kaolinite,
anhydrate aluminosilicat1e ( Al2O3, 2SiO2, 2H2O).
Its functions are:-
1. It increases the moldability of the plastic
porcelain
2. Acts as a binder and helps in maintaining the
shape of the unfired porcelain during firing.
3. At high temperature, it fuses and reacts with
other ingredients to form the glassy matrix.
• Main drawback of Kaolin :
• Its properties of opaqueness even when
present in very small quantities.
• Hence, the use of porcelain for application
in dental restorations was accompanied by
a reduction in the kaolin content in their
formulation in an attempt to reduce
opacity in the fired porcelain.
 4. Glass Modifiers ( formers )
• Glass is basically composed of silica(SiO2) with
oxides of sodium, Potassium, Calcium, Barium etc.
• The principal anion in all glasses is O2 ion, which
forms very stable bonds with small multivalent
cations such as silicon, boron, Germanium or
Phosphorus resulting in formation of random
networks of SiO4 tetrahedrals in glass.
• These ions are thus termed as Glass Formers.
• The essential component that allows the formation
of glass is silica, thus it is also called the network
former.
• Oxides of Titanium, Zinc, Lead and Al can all
take part in the formation of the glass
network and produce stiff network
structures.
• However, for dental purposes only two glass
forming oxides – Silicon and Boron oxides are
used to form the principle network (B2O3)
• Although not on its own, under certain
circumstances Alumina (Al2O3), may also be
regarded as a glass network forming oxide
(when used in conjunction with other
oxides); for this reason it is termed a Glassy
 Glass modifiers
• Their functions are:
• to decrease the softening point
• decrease the viscosity (flux action increasing the
flow)
• The main purpose of a flux is principally to lower
the softening temperature of a glass by reducing
the amount of cross-linking between the oxygen
and glass forming elements.
• E.g. Alkali metal ions such as Na, K or Ca (usually as
carbonates).
 Leucite
• Is a potassium-aluminum-silicate mineral with a
large coefficient of thermal expansion ( 20-25x10o/
o
C) compared to feldspathic glasses ( 10x10o/oC).
• In most dental porcelains, the leucite crystals are
created by transforming feldspar crystals into glass
and leucite crystals (precipitate) by a special heat
treatment.
• When feldspar is heated at a temperature between
1150oC and 6530oC, it undergoes incongruent
melting to form crystals of leucite in a liquid glass.
Special heat
treatment

• Feldspar Crystals Glass & Leucite Crystal

Functions of Leucite
To raise the coefficient of thermal expansion
(Cte) of porcelain and bring it closer to that of
the metal substrate; consequently increasing
the hardness and fusion temperature.
Leucite is a high expansion (or high
contraction) crystal phase whose volume
fraction in the glass matrix can greatly affect
the CTE of porcelain.
 Glass Formation
• When silica melts, it produces an extremely,
viscous liquid in which molecules can only move
pat one another very slowly.
• Thus, if molten silica is cooled rapidly, the
crystalline structure does not have time to form
before solidification; and the solid formed is more
to likely be a glass (Vitreous Structure) called
Fused Quartz.
• This process of forming a glass is called
‘Vitrification’.
• This is not conducive to crystallization, which
requires a substantial and rapid arrangement
of molecules.
• Glass may be cooled very slowly, to encourage
crystallization; but because of the strength of
the bonds and the complexity of the
structures, the rate of atomic diffusion is so
slow that it solidifies with a liquid structure
instead of a crystalline structure; and hence it
may also be described as a ‘supercooled
liquid’.
 Coloring agents
• Dental porcelains colored by the addition of
concentrated colour frits which are prepared by fritting
high-temperature resistant colouring pigments
(generally metallic oxides) into the basic glass.
• The glass thus obtained will be highly color saturated
and when ground to a fine powder, can be used in small
amounts to modify the uncoloured porcelain powder.
 Colouring and opacifying dental porcelain

•   The greatest colour problem encountered, with

porcelain if not coloured is the slightly greenish hue
exhibited by all glasses.
• In addition, some porcelains assume a greenish hue
after firing, and this inherent greenness can be further
accentuated by over firing (over-vitrification).
• In order to dampen down this effect and produce life-
like dentine and enamel colors; the basic dental
porcelain frit must be colored.
Special Effects in Dental Porcelain:
• Human teeth vary considerably in texture, colour
and form.
• In order to duplicate a natural tooth, the structural
defects, degrees of calcification and varying
thickness in enamel should be reproduced in the
porcelain build up.
• ‘Special effects’ in dental porcelain are created
with the use of supplementary colours of the basic
dentin porcelain, translucent or colourless
porcelain and colour frits.
 Opacifying agents
• An opacifying agent maybe incorporated, which
generally consists of a metal oxide ground to a
very fine particle size (<um) to prevent a speckled
appearance in the porcelain.
• The common metallic oxides used are –
• Cerium oxide,
• Titanium oxide,
• Tin oxide, and
• Zirconium oxide (ZrO2)- most popularly used
opacifying agent (usually added with the
concentrated color frit to the porcelain during final
preparation).
 Stains & Colour Modifiers
• Internal Staining : One method for ensuring that
the applied characterizing stains will be
permanent is to use them internally.
• Internal staining and characterization can produce
a very life-like result, when built into porcelain
rather than when it is merely applied to the
surface.
• However, if unsuitable the porcelain has to be
stripped completely.
• Colour modifiers – are used to obtain gingival
effects or to highlight body colours at the same
temperature as the dental porcelain.
• Stain is a mixture of one or more pigmented metal
oxides, and usually composed of a low fusing glass
that when dispersed in an aqueous slurry applied
to surface of porcelain, dried or light cured, and
fired will modify the shade of the ceramic-based
restoration.
• It is more concentrated than a color modifier and
is generally used as a surface colorant or to
provide enamel check lines, decalcification spots
etc. in the body of a porcelain jacket crown.
• These stain products are also called as surface
colorants or characterization porcelain.
 CLASSIFICATION OF
CERAMIC MATERIALS
 Mainly divided into 2 types
1. Ceramic used to veneer metal frame
work ie. PFM crowns
2. Ceramic used to produce all ceramic
restoration
Classification is based on:
1. According to use or indication
2. Composition
3. Principal Crystal phase or matrix phase
4. Processing method
5. Firing temperature
6. Microstructure
7. Translucency
8. Fracture resistance
9. Abrasiveness
 1. According to use or indication:
• Anterior and posterior crown
• Veneers
• Post and core
• FPD
• Ceramic stains
• Glaze
 2. Based on principal crystal phase
• feldspathic porcelain,
• leucite-reinforced porcelain,
• aluminous porcelain,
• alumina,
• glass-infiltrated alumina,
• glass-infiltrated spinel and glass-ceramic
 3. By processing methods :
• Sintering
• Partial sintering and glass in-filteration
• Casting or
• CAD CAM
• Copy milling
 4. According to the firing
temperatures as:
• High fusing 1300C (2372F)
• Medium fusing 1101 – 1300C
• Low fusing 850 – 1100C
• Ultra-low fusing <850C (1562F)
 5. According to microstructure:
1) Non-Crystalline Ceramics
e.g.: Feldspathic porcelain
2) Crystalline Ceramics
e.g.: Aluminous porcelain, Glass-Ceramics
 6. According to translucency

• Opaque
• Translucent
• Transparent
 7. According to application
 
1. Core porcelain,  
2. Body porcelain,
3. Enamel porcelain
8. According to method of firing:

1)      Air fired (i.e, at atmospheric pressure)

2)      Vaccum fired (i.e, below atmospheric
pressure)
 MANUFACTURE
&
DISPENSING
Of Conventional Ceramic in
fabrication of PFM crown
Manufacturing
• When the ceramic raw materials are mixed
together in a refractory crucible and heated to a
temperature well above their ultimate maturing
(fusion) temperature, a series of reaction occur.
• After the water of crystallization is lost, the flux
reacts with the outer layers of the grains of silica
(filler), kaolin (binder) and feldspar (basic glass
former) and partly combines them together.
• The feldspar fuses and further intermingles with
kaolin & quartz.
• The feldspar undergoes decomposition to form a
glass and a crystalline material known as leucite.
• Continuous heating results in total dissolution of
all components forming a homogenous glass.
• The fused mass is then quenched in water.
• The red-hot glass striking the cold water produces
internal stresses within the glass, to the extent
considerable cracking and fracturing occurs.
• The glass immediately breaks up into fragments
and this is termed the ‘frit’, used to describe the
final glass product.
• The process of blending, melting and quenching
the glass components is termed ‘fritting’
• The resultant frit is a brittle structure, which can
be readily ground to a fine powder form that can
be used for fabrication of porcelain restorations.
• When re-fired (during fabrication of ceramic
restoration) the particles gradually form a very
viscous liquid, which flows together and the
particles coalesce (sintering).
• Dental porcelains shrink during firing.
• To control this shrinkage and obtain high densities
during sintering, an irregular particle system, ‘gap-
grading’ is done in which a 3-fold difference
between grain sizes with at least three sizes of
powder are used (Binns, 1970).
 Dispensing of dental porcelain:
• The conventional dental porcelain material may be
generally supplied as a kit containing:
1. Fine ceramic powders in different shades of enamel,
dentin, core/opaque
2. Special liquid or distilled water-vehicle/medium for
ceramic powder (binder),
3. Stains and colour modifiers,
4. Glazes and Add-on porcelains
 STEPS IN
FABRICATION
1
2
3
4
5
 Steps :
1. Dental porcelain restorations are made by
mixing ceramic powders of selected shades
with distilled water or a special liquid
(binder) to form a plastic mass.
2. This is condensed either directly on a metal
coping or a matrix (frame) and shaped into
the desired form, then fused (sintered) in a
furnace by firing to develop a translucent
tooth like material (fused porcelain).
• Various methods of fabricating ceramic
restorations vary according to different
formulations available:
• Condensing and Sintering,
• Pressure molding & Sintering,
• Casting & Ceramming,
• Slip casting, Sintering & Glass infiltration
• Milling (Machining) by mechanical and digital
systems.
• The porcelain powders are mixed with water
to produce a plastic mass of material which
can be moulded and carved before firing.
• The aqueous plastic mass of porcelain
particles is compacted as much as possible
onto a platinum foil matrix.
• This reduces the size of the spaces between
the particles and thus reduces firing
shrinkage.
• Powders consisting of a mixture of particle
sizes compact more easily than those with
particles of one size only.
Fabrication of a conventional porcelain
restoration is basically composed of the
following stages:

1. Condensation –
2. Sintering –
3. Glazing –
4. Cooling.
 1. Condensation:
• The process of packing the particles together and
removing the liquid binder is known as condensation.
• It is a 2-part process – Agitation of the particles &
Removal of excess moisture.
• It is repetitious and the two components are carried out
alternately until no further moisture comes to the
surface.
• The movement of the particles is generated by a number
of standard methods such as
• Vibration,
• Spatulation
• Whipping.
1. The Vibration technique
• This method used mild vibration to pack the wet
powder densely on the underlying framework.
• The excess water is blotted away with a clean
tissue and condensation occurs towards the
blotted area
2. The Spatulation technique
• The method uses a small spatula to apply and
smoothen the wet porcelain in incremental
layers.
• The smoothing action brings the excess water to
the surface where it is removed by blotting.
3. The Brush technique
• This method employs the addition of dry
porcelain powder on the surface to absorb the
moisture.
• The dry powder is placed by a brush to the side
opposite from an increment of wet porcelain.
• As the water is drawn towards the dry powder,
the wet particles are pulled together.
 Sintering or Firing of Dental
Porcelain
• Is defined as a process of heating closely
packed particles to achieve interparticle
bonding and sufficient diffusion to decrease
the surface area or increase density of the
structure.
• The partial fusion or compaction of glass is
often referred to as sintering.
• During the process of sintering, the points at
which the individual particles are in contact (grain
boundaries) soften and fuse at sufficiently high
temperatures.
• This process relies on diffusion, which is greatly
accelerated by elevated temperatures.
Steps in sintering:

1. Pre-heating the furnace

2. The condensed porcelain mass is placed in front
or below the muffle, to permit the remaining
liquid binder and vapor to dissipate (so as to
prevent steam formation when placed inside
the furnace).
3. The “green” porcelain is placed into the hot
zone of the furnace and the firing cycle is
initiated.
1. The furnace door is then closed and firing is
completed.
2. Shrinkage takes place as the fluxes bind the
particles together causing a uniform inward
contraction of the whole mass.
3. Further additions of fresh material may be made
at this stage before glazing.
4. Whenever porcelain work is heated or cooled the
process must be carried out slowly.
5. Porcelain is a poor conductor of heat and is
brittle.
6. Rapid cooling would result in cracking and loss of
strength.
There are four categories of dental ceramics
for metal ceramic systems:
1. manually condensed feldspathic veneering
porcelains,
2. hot isostatically pressed (HIP) veneering
ceramics,
3. ceramic stains, and
4. glazes.
There are six categories of dental ceramics
for all-ceramic systems:

1. HIP or CAD-CAM core ceramics,

2. manually condensed veneering ceramics,
3. hot-pressed veneering ceramics,
4. liners,
5. ceramic stains, and
6. ceramic glazes.
 METAL-CERAMIC SYSTEMS:
COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES

• The most outstanding advantage of metal-

ceramic restorations is their resistance to
fracture.
• With metal occlusal surfaces, the fracture rate In
posterior sites could be reduced further.
• Another potential advantage of metal-ceramic
restorations over total ceramic restorations is
that less tooth structure needs to be removed to
provide the proper bulk for the crown,
• The feldspars used for dental porcelains are relatively
pure and colorless.
• Thus, pigments must be added to produce the hues of
natural teeth or the color appearance of tooth-colored
restorative materials that may exist in adjacent teeth.
• Silicate glass represents the matrix phase of
feldspathic porcelains.
• Silica (SiO) can exist in four different forms:
• crystalline quartz,
• crystalline cristobalite,
• crystalline tridymite, and
• Non-crystalline fused silica.
• Fused silica is a high-melting material whose
melting temperature is attributed to the three
dimensional network of covalent bonds between
silica tetrahedra, the basic structural units of the
glass network.
 PROPERTIES OF
DENTAL CERAMICS
1. Colour stability
2. Brittleness
3. Abrasion Resistance
• Natural tooth - 343 KHN
• Porcelain 460 – KHN
• Hence, it causes wearing of natural tooth and metal
restorations (particularly if porcelain is not glazed properly).
4. Dimensional Stability
• Porcelain has a coefficient of thermal expansion , slightly less
than that of the tooth structure .
5. Coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE)
6. Degradability
7. Abrasion resistance and wear
Optical Properties
 Coefficient of thermal expansion
(CTE)
• Porcelain has a coefficient of expansion slightly
less than that of tooth structure.
• When different porcelain formulations are
veneered together (all-ceramic) and over metal
copings (metal – ceramics), coefficient of thermal
expansion should be matched to prevent
development of interfacial stresses leading to
separation or fracture.
 Strength
• Compressive strength - 48,000 Psi
• Tensile strength - 3500-5000 Psi
• Flexure strength, transverse strength, or modulus
of rupture, as this property is variously called, is
essentially a strength test of a bar supported at
each end , or a thin disk supported along a lower
support circle ,under a static load .
• For brittle materials such as ceramics, flexure tests
are preferred to the diametrical compressive tests
because they more closely simulate the stress
distributions in dental prostheses.
• Degradability
• Porcelain is generally resistant to degradation in the
oral environment and is susceptible to mechanical
degradation by brittle fracture (chipping)
•  Abrasion resistance and wear
• Fused porcelain is the hardest dental material in
common use.
• It resists wear by opposing restoration or natural teeth
better than other dental materials.
• Desirable properties
• Good esthetic qualities .
• High hardness
• High compressive strength
• Good chemical durability .
• Excellent biocompatibility.
• Principal deficiencies
• Brittleness
• Low fracture toughness
• Low tensile strength-susceptible to fracture
during placement, mastication and trauma
According to K. J. Anusavice (Phillip’s
Science of D Materials
 1. Methods of Strengthening brittle materials :
A. Development of residual compressive stresses
• Ion exchange – (Chemical tempering)
• Thermal tempering
• Thermal compatibility (TCE mismatch)
B. Interruption of crack propagation
• Dispersion of crystalline phase
• Transformation toughening
2. Methods of designing
a. Avoid stress raiser
b. Minimise stress
1. Methods of strengthening Brittle
Materials
• Tensile stresses in the oral environment are
created by bending forces, especially at the
surface of a restoration or prosthesis (surface
flaws).
• Strengthening of brittle materials occurs through
one or both of two approaches as well as specific
methods based on these strategies:
A. Development of residual compressive stresses
within the surface of the material.
B. Interruption of crack propagation through the
material.
 1.(A) Development /Induction of
Residual Compressive Stresses
• This is one of the widely used methods of
strengthening glasses and ceramics.
• Methods
1. Ion exchange (chemical tempering),
2. Thermal tempering, and
3. Thermal compatibility (thermal expansion
coefficient mismatch)
 1(A) 1. Ion Exchange
(Sometimes called Chemical tempering)
• Is one of the more sophisticated and effective
methods of introducing residual compressive
stresses into the surface of ceramics.
• In this process, the potassium (K+) ions are
exchanged for the sodium ions.
• The potassium ions being larger than the Na+ ions
(about 35%), squeeze into the place formerly
occupied by the smaller Na+ ions creating large
compressive stresses (roughly 700Mpa/
1,00,000psi) in the surfaces of glasses subjected
to this treatment.
 1(A) 2. Thermal tempering
• This is another common method for
strengthening glasses, which creates residual
compressive stresses by rapidly cooling
(quenching) the surface of the object while it is
still hot, and in the softened (molten) state.
• This rapid cooling produces a skin of rigid glass
surrounding a soft (molten) core.
• As the molten core solidifies molten core, as it
shrinks, creates residual tensile stresses in the
core and residual compressive stresses within the
outer surface.
 Thermal tempering

• This method is used to strengthen glasses

used for automobile windows and
windshield, sliding glass doors and diving
masks.
• For dental applications, it is more effective
to quench hot glass-phase ceramics in
silicone oil or other special liquids rather
than using air jets that may not uniformly
cool the surface.
 1(A) 3. Thermal compatibility
(Thermal expansion coefficient
mismatch)
• Ideally, porcelain should be under slight compression in
the final restoration, hence for metal-ceramic
restorations, the metal and porcelain selected should
have a slight mismatch in their thermal contraction
coefficients.
• Since the metal thermal contraction coefficient is slightly
larger, the metal contracts slightly more than the
porcelain on cooling.
• This mismatch leaves the porcelain in residual
compression and provides additional strength for the
restoration.
• β metal coping
• α porcelain layer
 1(B) Interruption of Crack
Propagation
• This method involves strengthening glasses and
ceramics by reinforcing them with a dispersed
phase of a different material that is capable of
hindering a crack from propagating through the
material.

• Methods
1. Dispersion of a crystalline phase
2. Transformation toughening
 1(B) 1. Dispersion of a crystalline
phase:
• This type of dispersion relies on the toughness of
the dispersed particle to absorb energy from the
crack and deplete its driving force for
propagation.
• However, it requires a close match between the
thermal contraction coefficients of the crystalline
material and the surrounding glass matrix. E.g. :
• This technique has found application in dentistry
in the development of aluminous porcelains
(Al2O3 particles in a glassy porcelain matrix) for
PJC’s.
• When a tough crystalline material such as alumina (Al2O3)
in particulate form is added to glass, the glass is
toughened and strengthened, because the crack cannot
penetrate the alumina particles as easily as it can the
glass.
1(B) 2. Transformation toughening
• This technique relies on a crystal structure change
under stress, to absorb energy from the cracks.
• It involves the incorporation of a crystalline
material that is capable of undergoing a change in
crystal structure when placed under stress.
• The crystalline material usually used is partially
stabilized Zirconia (PSZ).
• The energy required for the transformation of PSZ
is taken from the energy that allows the crack to
propagate.
 2. Methods of Designing Components to
Minimize Stress Concentrations And Tensile
Stresses
• Dental restorations containing ceramics
should be designed to overcome their
weaknesses, such as, to avoid exposure of
the ceramic to high tensile stresses, to avoid
stress concentration at sharp angles or
marked changes in thickness.
• Methods:
A. Minimizing tensile stress
B. Reducing stress raisers
 2 (A) Minimizing Tensile Stress:
• In posterior teeth, occlusal forces cause
concentration of large stresses near the interior
surface of the crown.
• Hence, conventional PJC’s are contraindicated in
such situations.
• However, they can be subjected to large tensile
stresses even on anterior teeth when there is a
great amount of vertical overlap (overbite) with
only a moderate amount of horizontal overlap
(overjet).
 2 (B) Reducing Stress Raisers
• Stress Raisers are discontinuities in ceramic structures
and in other brittle materials that cause stress
concentration.
• E.g.: Abrupt changes inshape or thickness in the ceramic
contour that renders the restoration more prone to
failure should be avoided.
• Sharp line angles in the tooth preparation
• Large change in porcelain thickness.
• If the occlusion on a porcelain restoration is not adjusted
properly, the contact points will greatly increase the
localized stresses within the external and internal surface
of the porcelain crown.
 METHOD OF STRENGTHENING
CERAMICS by one or more of the
following 7 options:
1. select stronger and tougher ceramics;
2. develop residual compressive stresses within
the surface of the material by thermal
tempering;
3. Develop residual compressive stress within
interfacial regions of weaker, less tough ceramic
layers by properly matching coefficients of
thermal expansion and contraction;
4. reduce the tensile stress in the ceramic by
appropriate selection of stiffer supporting
materials (greater elastic moduli);
5. minimize the number of firing cycles for
feldspathic porcelains;
6. design the ceramic prosthesis with greater
bulk and broader radii of curvature for
connectors in areas of potential tensile
stress to minimize stress concentrations
and the magnitude of tensile stresses that
can develop during function; and
7. adhesively bond the ceramic crowns to
the tooth structure.
 
Bond failure
• This is a situation virtually impossible to attain,
resulting in fractures in which failure occurs
either through the porcelain (cohesive) or
through a mixture of cohesive and adhesive
failures (i.e., part interfacial and part through the
porcelain).
• Although infinite number of fracture paths may
occur , three types are of particular importance
in diagnosing the cause of fracture.
 
Types of interfacial bond failure
occurs at primarily three sites :
1. Along the interfacial region between
opaque porcelain (P) and the interaction
zone(I) the between porcelain and the
metal substrate.
2. Within the interaction zone.
3. Between the metal and the interaction
zone .
 BONDING PORCELAIN TO
METAL
• The primary requirement for the success of a metal-
ceramic restoration is the development of a durable
bond between the porcelain and the metal oxide.
• Three factors control the durability of metal-ceramic
bonding:
1. mechanical interlocking or interatomic bonding at the
interface between porcelain and the metal oxide;
2. interatomic bonding across the oxide-porcelain
interface; and
3. the type and magnitude of residual stress in the
veneering ceramic.
 Enameling of Metals:
• Porcelain is fused directly to a metal coping
serving as a metallic substrate.
• A strong bond is achieved between the porcelain
and metal.
• The porcelain veneer reinforced by the cast metal
substructure is less likely to succumb to fractures
under tensile stresses.
•  Types of bonding:
Van der Waal’s Bonding
Mechanical bonding
Chemical bonding.
• The homogeneous bond between the alloy and the
ceramic layers not only increases the strength of ceramic-
veneered frameworks, but also substantially reduces the
fracture susceptibility of ceramic materials.
• In fact, it is this sound bond between alloys and
veneering ceramics that permits minimum alloy
framework thicknesses of 0.3–0.5 mm.
ALL-CERAMIC
SYSTEMS
Currently available all-ceramics can be broadly categorized
according to their method of fabrication :
Ø      CONVENTIONAL (POWDER – SLURRY)
CERAMICS
Ø      CASTABLE CERAMICS
Ø      MACHINABLE CERAMICS
Ø      PRESSABLE CERAMICS
Ø      INFILTRATED CERAMICS
CASTABLE
CERAMICS
 Glass-ceramics are polycrystalline materials developed for
application by casting procedures using the lost wax technique,
hence referred to as “castable ceramic”. Glass ceramics in
general are partially crystallized glass and show properties of
both crystalline and amorphous (glassy) materials. They are
fabricated in the vitreous (Glass or non-crystalline/amorphous)
state and converted to a ceramic (crystalline state) by
controlled crystallization using nucleating agents during heat
treatment.
 Castable dental Glass-Ceramics
 
 
 

Fluoromicas Apatite Glass-Ceramic OtherGlass-Ceramics

(SiO2K2MgOA12O3ZrO2 (CaOMgOP2O5SiO2 system) Based on a) Lithia
E.g Dicor E.g: Cera Pearl (Kyocera Bioceram) b)Calcium phosphate
Fabrication of castable ceramics restoration consists of
mainly 2 steps:
Ø      Casting: The glass liquefies at 1370C to such a degree
that it can be cast into a mold using lost-wax and centrifugal
casting techniques.
·        The wax pattern of the proposed restoration made on the
model/ die is invested in Castable Ceramic Investment (a
carbon-free, phosphate-based investment, specially formulated
to match DICOR castable ceramic) in a double-line casting ring
and burned out in a conventional burnout at 900°C for 30 mins.
• Glass ingots of castable ceramic material is placed in a
special zirconia crucible (melted at 1360C / 2600F) and
centrifugally cast .in the electronically-controlled DICOR
Casting Machine (Dentsply Int), maintaining the spin pressure
for upto 4 minutes and 30 seconds.
·        The transparent glass casting obtained is amorphous and
fragile. After cooling, it is divested, sandblasted (25um Al2O3
particles at 40 psi) and carefully separated from the sprue.

 Ceramming: The cast glass material is subject to a

single-step heat treatment called as 'Ceramming' to produce
controlled crystallization by internal nucleation and crystal
growth of microscopic plate like mica crystals within the
glass matrix. This procedure gives glass-ceramic the special
physical and mechanical properties of DICOR.
Method: The transparent fragile casting is embedded in
castable ceramic embedment material (Gypsum-based) and
placed in a Ceramming tray in the DICOR Ceramming
Furnace.
Ceramming cycle:
650-1075 C for 1 1/2hours and sustained upto 6 hours.
The cerammed glass-ceramic casting is achromatic and
appears as a whitish opaque semi-crystalline material; hence
external colourants are required to develop the required shade
(by veneering self - glazing, pre-mixed DICOR shading
porcelain provided by the manufacturer).
 Ceramming: The ceramming oven is preheated at 750°C
for 15 minutes. After the cast glass ceramic is place in the
oven the temperature is raised at the rate 50oC/min until it
reaches 870°C and held for 1 hour. After crystallization, the
casting is dis-invested, and cleaned by sandblasting (201m
Al2O3 powder). It appears white in comparison with natural
enamel and requires the application of an external stain. Eg,
Cerastain (Bioceram), which consists of B2O3-SiO2-Al203-
K2O glass, traces of various metal oxides.
MACHINABLE
CERAMICS
Machinable Ceramic system (MCS) for dental restorations:
Ø      Digital Systems (CAD/CAM):
• Direct
• Indirect
 
Three steps :
§         3-dimensional surface scanning
§         CAD -Modelling of the restoration
§         Fabrication of restoration.
Ø      Analogous systems (Copying methods)
• Copy Milling / Copy Grinding or Pantography Systems
Two steps :
§         Fabrication of prototype for scanning;
§         Copying and reproducing by milling

• Erosive techniques
q       Sono Erosion
q       Spark Erosion
Stages of fabrication: Although numerous approaches to
CAD/CAM for restorative dentistry have evolved, all systems
ideally involve 5 basic stages:
Ø      Computerized surface digitization
Ø      Computer - aided design
Ø      Computer - assisted manufacturing
Ø      Computer - aided esthetics
Ø      Computer - aided finishing
(The last two stages are more complex and are still being
developed for including in commercial systems).
Computerized surface digitization: 3D-surface digitizing
or scanning methods are separated into :
• Direct (at the tooth)
• Indirect methods(via impression making & model
fabrication or via pro-inlay)
• Mechanical
• Optical sensors
PRESSABLE
CERAMICS
 PRESSABLE CERAMICS

Shrink-free Ceramics Leucite-reinforced

Glass-ceramics
Cerestore IPSEmpress
Al-Ceram
Optec
Pressable Ceramic (OPC)