LEARNING,

PERCEPTION
ATTRIBUTION
AND
OBJECTIVES
 Define learning and identify the underlying theories and types of
learning.
 Define perception and identify the factors that influence
perception.
 Explain the Attribution Theory.
 Describe the common attribution errors.
 Explain how attribution influence behaviors.
LEARNING
What is Learning?

 Acquiring a complex set of skills as a result of change that

comes from learning. It is a permanent change in behavior or
knowledge due to experience.
 Knowledge or skill gained from learning.
• Examples:
A computer program that makes learning fun.
Different methods of foreign language learning.
The first year of college was learning
experience.
What is Learning?

• Learning is much deeper than memorization and information

recall.
• It involves understanding, relating ideas and making
connections between prior and new knowledge,
independent and critical thinking and ability to transfer
knowledge to new different contexts.
What is Learning?
• “Learning is not something done to students ,but rather
something students themselves do”
• Students needs opportunities to develop interpersonal and
social skills that are important for professional and
personal success.
Examples of these skills are:
 Teamwork
 Effective communication
 Conflict resolution
 Creative thinking
Types of Learning
 Non-associative learning
-relatively permanent change in the strength of response
to single stimulus due to repeated exposure to that
stimulus.changes due to such factors as sensory adaptation ,
fatigue, or injury do not qualify as non-associative learning.

 Associative learning
-a Process by which a person or an animal learns an
association between two stimuli.
Types of Learning
Observational learning
-is the learning that occurs through observing the
behaviors of others

Imprinting
-is a kind of learning occurring at a particular life stage that
is rapid and apparently independent of the consequences of
behavior
Types of Learning
 Enculturation-process by which people learn values and behaviors that
are appropriate or necessary in their surrounding culture
 Episodic learning-is a change in behavior that occurs as a result of an
event
 Multimedia learning-is where a person uses both auditory and visual
stimuli to learn information
 E-learning and augmented learning-computer enhanced learning .
 M-learning-which uses different mobile tele communications equipment
such as cellular phones.
 Augmented learning-when a learner interacts with the e- learning
environment
Theories of Learning
• Learning theories are an organized setoff principles explaining how
individuals acquire, retain and recall knowledge.by studying and knowing
the different learning theories , we can better understand how learning
occurs. The learning principles of theories can be used as guidelines
to help select instructional tools , techniques and strategies that are
essential.
• The three learning theories are:
 Behaviorism
 Cognitivism
 constructivism
Behaviorism (B.F Skinner and the concept of operant
conditioning)
• Behaviorism theorist believe that knowledge exist independently
and outside of people.
• The view the learners as a blank slate who must be provided by
the experience
• Behaviorist believe thet learning actually occurs when new
behaviors or changes in behaviors are acquired through
associations between stimuli and responses
• Thus, association leads to change in behavior
Behaviorism (B.F Skinner and the concept of operant
conditioning)
• Behavior theorist define learning simply as the acquisition of a
new behavior or change in behavior
• The theory is that learning begins when a cue or stimulus
from the environment is presented and
the learner reacts to the stimulus with some types of
response.
• Consequencies that reinforce the desired behavior are
arranged to follow the desired behavior(Ex.study for a test and
get a good grades)
• Teachers use behaviorism when they reward or
Behaviorism (B.F Skinner and the concept of operant
conditioning)

 Drill/Rote work
 Repetitive practice
 Bonus points(Providing an incentive to do more)
 Participation points(Providing an incentive to participate)
 Verbal reinforcement(saying Good job)
 Establishing rules
 Types of Behavioral Learning
 Classical conditioning(Ivan Pavlov)- association is
made between two stimuli
 Operant conditioning-(B.F Skinner) - punishment
Reinforcement-is a consequence that increases the likelihood as
a response will occur.by using reinforcement, you are trying to
increase a behavior
Two types of reinforcement:
 Positive
 Negative
 Types of Behavioral Learning

Punishment-is a consequence that decreases the likelihood a

response will occur.if you are using punishment you are trying to
decrease a behavior
 positive
 negative
 Cognitivism(uses thinking to learn)
The cognitive learning theory explains why the brain is the most
incredible network of information processing and interpretation in
the body as we learn things.
1.Social cognitive Theory-states that when people observe a
model performing a behavior and the consequencies of that
behavior
2.Cognitive behavioral theory-is the assumption that cognitive
activity and behavior are different,indeed several authors have
regarded cognitive activity as a subcategory of behavior
 Constructivism
• a secular religion or at least a powerful folktale about the origin
of human knowledge
• new orthodoxy of science education
• Constructivist theory has inspired reform at all levels of
educational system
• Rejects the idea of pure science
• Theory is based on the belief in the uncertainty of even scientific
knowledge
PERCEPTIONS
 What is Perception?

• Defined as the process which people select , organize, interpret

, retrieve and respond to information from their environment

Factors affecting Perceptions:

 Perceiver factors
 Target factors
 Situation factors
What is Perception?

Factors influencing perceptions:

1. The Perceiver
 His past experience
 His needs or motives
 His personality
 His values and attitudes
Process of Perception

 The environment
 Information
 Select organize , Interpret, Retrieve, Response
 People
The Target

 contrast
 intensity
 figure ground separation
 size
 motion
 repetition or novelty
Situational Factors

• Situational factors that affect perception:

 Time
 work,
 Setting
 Social setting
 References
• http://kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/research/former-research-groups/ernstgroup/perception-and-
-learning.html
• www.queensu.ca/teachingandlearning/modules//students/04_what_is_learning.html

• https://www.slideshare.net/mobile/nels09/learning-perception-land-attribution

• https://prezi.com/m/h4cg-7de0apd/learning-perception-and-attribution/
ATTRIBUTIONS
What is an Attribution?

• Attribution is the process of explaining the behaviors of others.

It is the process by which individuals explain the causes of
behavior and events.

“Teacher Monica is angry.”

What is an Attribution?

• Humans assign causes to actions and behaviors.

• Psychological research into attribution began with the work of
Fritz Heider in the early part of the 20th century, subsequently
developed by others such as Harold Kelley and Bernard Weiner.
ATTRIBUTION THEORY

• Attribution theory is concerned with how and why

ordinary people explain events as they do.
• Explains the ways in which we judge people diofferently.
• We attempt to determine if the behavior is
caused
INTERNALLY OR EXTERNALLY.
TYPES OF ATTRIBUTION:

Internal Stable Controllable

Unstable Uncontrollable
External
TYPES OF ATTRIBUTION:

Internal Attribution
The process of assigning the cause of behavior to some
internal characteristic, rather than to outside forces.

 personality traits,
 motives or
 beliefs.
TYPES OF ATTRIBUTION:

External Attribution
The process of assigning the cause of behavior to some situation or
event outside a person's control rather than to some internal
characteristic.

 situational or environment features.

 Let’s try!

“A teacher comes late to school.”

Internal Attribution
Went to sleep late or because of oversleeping.

External Attribution
Traffic, Accident or Tire Punction
 Let’s try!
“A straight A student fails at her math exam
for the first time.”
Internal Attribution
The student became too lazy to study.

External Attribution
The teacher’s teaching strategy is not at par his level or the
teacher is so boring or she didn’t study for the
exam.
 TYPES OF ATTRIBUTION:

Stable Attribution
An event or behavior is due to unchanging, stable factors.
 Intelligence
 Ability

Unstable Attribution
An event or behavior is due to unstable, temporary factors.
 Luck
 Efforts
TYPES OF ATTRIBUTION:

Controllable Attribution
Success can be altered or influenced if you wish to do so.
 Efforts
 Mood

Uncontrollable Attribution
Success can’t be easily altered or influenced.
 Ability
Three Evidence of Covariation Model

• Distinctiveness
- Whether an individual displays different
behavior in different situations.

- UNUSUAL BEHAVIOR = EXTERNAL ATTRIBUTION

- USUAL BEHAVIOR = INTERNAL ATTRIBUTION
Let’s try!

“A regular worker, who is never late to the

work, came late today.”

- UNUSUAL BEHAVIOR = Being late TODAY.

EXTERNAL!
Let’s try!

“A regular worker comes to work everyday.”

- USUAL BEHAVIOR = Coming to work late ALWAYS.

INTERNAL!
Three Evidences of Covariation Model

• Consensus
– People facing similar situation respond in a same way.

- HIGH CONSENSES= EXTERNAL ATTRIBUTION

- LOW CONSENSUS = INTERNAL ATTRIBUTION
Let’s try!
“You didn’t do your homework due to less
time but your other classmates manage to do
it.”

- CONSENSUS IS LOW= only you didn’t do the homework

INTERNAL!
Let’s try!
“You didn’t do your homework due to less
time but your other classmates manage to do
it.”

- CONSENSUS IS LOW= only you didn’t do the homework

INTERNAL!
Let’s try!

“Nobody in your class submitted the

homework.”

- CONSENSUS IS HIGH= All of you didn’t do the homework

EXTERNAL!
Three Evidence of Covariation Model

• Consistency
-how much consistent a person’s actions are.
-INCONSISTENT = EXTERNAL ATTRIBUTION
-CONSISTENT= INTERNAL ATTRIBUTION
Let’s try!

“A student comes late to class everyday.”

- CONSISTENT= being late everyday

INTERNAL!
Let’s try!

“A student comes late to class once in a long

while.”

- INCONSISTENT= being only once in few months

EXTERNAL!
Common Attribution Errors

• “The problem is that attributions don’t always accurately represent

reality.”
• As Fritz Heider says, "our perceptions of causality are
often distorted by our needs and certain cognitive biases".
• While people strive to find reasons for behaviors, they fall into
many traps of biases and errors.
Attributional Bias and Errors

• Fundamental attribution error

- describes the habit to misunderstand dispositional or
personality-based explanations for behavior instead
considering external factors.
Example: A person is overweight.
• a person's first assumption might be that they
have a problem with overeating or are lazy and not
that they might have a medical reason for being
heavier set.
Attributional Bias and Errors

• Culture bias
- someone makes an assumption about the behavior of a
person based on their cultural practices and beliefs.
1. Individualist cultures
Success = internal factors; Failure= external factors.
1. collectivist cultures
Failure = internal factors; Success= external factors.
Attributional Bias and Errors

• Self-serving bias
- Self-serving bias is attributing dispositional and internal
factors for success, while external and uncontrollable factors are
used to explain the reason for failure.
Example: A person gets promoted.

• Promoted- because of his/her ability and competence.

• Not promoted - because his/her manager does not like
him/her (external, uncontrollable factor).”
Attributional Bias and Errors

• Dispositional attributions
-Dispositional attribution is a tendency to attribute
people's behaviors to their dispositions; that is, to their
personality, character, and ability.
Example: A normally pleasant waiter is being rude to his/her
customer.
• The customer may assume he/she has a bad
temper.
• The customer, just by looking at the attitude that
the waiter is
giving him/her, instantly decides that the waiter is a bad
Attributional Bias and Errors

• Dispositional attributions
- Therefore, the customer made dispositional attribution
by attributing the waiter's behavior directly to his/her personality
rather than considering situational factors that might have caused
the whole "rudeness".
Three (3) Attribute Styles

• Optimistic.
-attribute negative outcomes to external events
and positive outcomes to internal events.
A student, therefore, will attribute failure on an exam to something
outside of themselves.
-Success would be attributed to their own effort, superior
preparation and stable measures such as innate intelligence.
Three (3) Attribute Styles

• Pessimistic.
- tend towards explaining negativeoutcomes in terms of
internal and stable factors.
A student who fails an exam would attribute their failure to
something about themselves and to something they couldn’t change
(such as their level of intelligence).
- In the event of success they would attribute the
outcome to something external and unstable such as luck.
Three (3) Attribute Styles

• Hostile.
- tends towards blaming external factors for undesirable
outcomes. This blame can manifest itself in hostility towards the
external entity seen to be responsible.
A student, therefore, might become hostile
towards a teacher they believe is responsible for
his failure.
Kelley's Covariation Model

– a logical model for judging whether a particular action should be

attributed to some characteristic (internal) of the person or the
environment (external).
– Proposed by Harold Kelley
– Covariation simply means that a person has information from
multiple observations, at different times and situations, and
can perceive the covariation of an observed effect and its
causes.
Shortcuts used in Forming Impressions of
Others

• Stereotyping
- Judging someone on the basis of one’s perception
of the group which that person belongs.

• Halo Effect
- One attribute is used to develop a whole perception of a
person or situation.
Shortcuts used in Forming Impressions of
Others

• Contrast Effect
- Evaluation of a person’s characteristics are affected by
comparisons with other people.

• Selective Perception
- Happens when a person selectively interprets what he
sees on the basis of his interests, background,
experience, and attitudes.
 References

• http://www.analytictech.com/mb021/perception.htm
• https://prezi.com/h4cg-7de0apd/learning-perception-and-attribution/
• https://www.simplypsychology.org/attribution-theory.html
• http://www.psychologyandsociety.com/attribution.html
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attribution_%28psychology%29
• https://www.google.com/search?q=effects+of+attribution+to&ie=utf-
8&oe=utf-8
 The End.
Thank you!