• Course Name: Pharmaceutical

Calculations
Course code: Phar2072
Module Name: Introductory
Pharmacy Module
Module Code: 07
Course ECTS: 2
Totally required hours for the
course: 54hrs
Lecture hours: 13
By: G.Assefa
(Bpharm, BA)

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 Chapter 1:
Fundamentals of Pharmaceutical
Calculations

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Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Pharmaceutical
Calculations
• Introduction to pharmaceutical calculation
• Balance sensitivity, accuracy and percentage of errors
• Significant figures,
• Measurement of volume and weight
• Aliquot method of weighing and measuring
• Density,
• Specific gravity,
• Specific volume

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Introduction to pharmaceutical calculation
• Pharmaceutical calculations:
 is the area of study that applies the basic principles of
mathematics to the preparation and safe and effective use
of pharmaceuticals.
 Pharmaceutical calculation help to attain the goal of 100
percent accuracy desired in pharmacy

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 Fundamentals of measurements and calculation

Mathematics Review

• A number is total quantity, or amount of unit.

• A numeral is a word or sign or group of words or signs expressing

a number.

• E.g. 5, 10, 18 are Arabic numerals expressing numbers that are,

respectively, 5 times, 10 times, 18 times the unit one.
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 Arabic and Roman numerals

• Arabic system of notation is properly called a decimal system with only

10 figures

 A zero and nine digits (1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9).

• To express quantities in the roman system, eight letters of fixed values are used
(there is no letter for the value zero).
 Ss = ½, I or I = 1,II or ii=2, III or iii =3, IV or iv =4, V or v = 5, X or x = 10, L
or l =50
 C or c =100
 D or d =500

 M or m =1000 6
 Con…

• The roman system of notation expresses a fairly large range of numbers by

the use of a few letters of the alphabet in a simple "positional" notation
indicating adding to or subtracting from a succession of bases.

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 The Roman numeral

Rules:

• Other quantities are expressed by combining these letters.

• There are four general rules for reading roman numerals.

• A letter repeated once or more repeats its value. E.g. - XX = 20, XXX = 30

• One or more letters placed after a letter of greater values increases the value of
the greater letter. E.g. VI = 6, Xii = 12, LX = 60

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 Con…

• A letter placed before a letter of greater value decreases the value of the greater
letter. E.g. IV = 4, XL = 40, CM = 900

• A bar placed above a letter or letters increases the value by 1000 times. E.g. XV =
15, but XV = 15000

Example:

• xxx = 30 cc = 200 ix = 9 cdxliv = ?

• DC = 600 di =501 xiv = 14 mdclxvi = ?

• LXVI = 66 lxxxviii = 88 xliv = ? mcdxcii = ?

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 Fractions, Decimals and significant figures

• Fractions-is a number in the form 1/8,1/2 etc

• It has numerator and denominator.

• A fraction with denominator of 10 or any power of 10 is called a decimal.

• The denominator of a decimal fraction is never written, because the decimal

point indicates the place value of the numerals.

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 Sensitivity, Accuracy, Precision
• All balances have a point below which they cannot measure
accurately.

• This cutoff point is called the sensitivity/sensitivity requirement

• The sensitivity requirement will tell you two things:

The minimum amount of drug you can weigh on

balance and
The increments of the balance measure.

If you attempt to weigh something less than the sensitivity

requirement on a balance, the balance will give you a reading of
zero. 11
 Con…
• Accuracy is refers to close the measurement value to actual
value

• If you take the same amount of substance, say 100mg, and weigh
it 100 times, you will not always end up with the same reading.
Why not?

• Precision is the variation in the measurement value

• Precision refers to the reproducibility of a measure.

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 Sensitivity, Accuracy, Precision

• How are accuracy and precision different?

• The industry standard is that all balances must have a 5% or

lower rate of error.

• This 5% rate of error is going to affect how small a quantity of

substance you can weigh.

• You need to make sure that the potential inaccuracy of the

sensitivity requirement is incorporated into your 5% potential for
error.

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 Sensitivity, Accuracy, Precision
Example:
1. If your balances sensitivity requirement is 10mg and you weigh 10mg,
you could be off by up to 10mg – a potential error rate of 100%.

2. If you try to weigh 20mg, you can be off by as much as 10mg, making
your potential error rate of 50% (i.e. 10mg/20mg).

3. If you try to weigh 40 mg, you can be off by as much as 25% (10mg
/40mg).

4. It is not until you reach a weight of 200mg that your sensitivity

requirement will be within the accepted 5% range of potential error
(10mg ÷200mg = 0.05: 5%).

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 Con…
• The smallest amount of substance that you could weigh with a 5% or
less margin of error is minimum weighable quantity (MWQ)

• MWQ is calculated by taking your balance’s sensitivity requirement

(SR) and dividing it by 5%,

Q1. What is MWQ for a balance with a sensitivity requirement of 1mg?

Q2. What is MWQ for a balance with a SR of 6mg with a potential error
of not more than 10%?

Q3. What is a sensitivity requirement of a balance if MWQ is 120mg?

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 Percentage of error
• Since measurements are not absolute, it is important to recognize the
limitations of the instruments and the magnitude of errors

• A true record of the weight of a substance should include two quantities,

expressing:
• The apparent weight

• Possible excess or deficiency (maximum potential error) calculated

from the known sensitivity or sensitivity requirement.

 To calculate the percent error, divide the SR by the amount to weight and
express the result as percent.

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 Percentage of error
Example:
• A pharmacist attempts to weigh 120mg of codeine sulfate on a balance having a
sensitivity requirement of 6mg. Calculate the maximum potential error in terms
of percentage?

ans. PE = (6mg x 100%)/120 = 5%

• If the maximum potential error of the instrument is known, it is possible to

calculate the smallest quantity that can be measured within the desired accuracy.

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 Con…

Example:

• If an accuracy of 2% is desired, what is the minimum amount that

should be weighed in a torsion prescription balance having a
sensitivity requirement of 0.004gram?

ans. MWQ = (100 x 4mg)/2 = 200mg

• In order to be able to weigh something accurately, weigh

amount is at or above the MWQ.

• How can you measure if the dose is below MWQ?

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Significant figures:
• When we count objects accurately, every figure in the
numeral expressing the total number of objects must be
taken at its face value, Such figures may be said to be
absolute.
• When we record a measurement, the last figure to the right
must be taken to be an approximation, an admission
that the limit of possible precision or of necessary accuracy
has been reached and that any further figures to the right
would not be significant—that is, either meaningless or, for a
given purpose, needless.
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Significant figures:
• A denominate number, like 325 grams, is interpreted as
follows:
• The 3 means 300 grams,neither more nor less, and
• The 2 means exactly 20 grams more; but
• The final 5 means approximately 5 grams more, i.e., 5 grams
plus or minus some fraction of a gram.
• Whether this fraction is, for a given purpose, negligible
depends on how precisely the quantity is to be weighed.
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Significant figures:
• Significant figures, then, are consecutive figures that express
the value of a denominate number accurately enough for a
given purpose.
• The accuracy varies with the number of significant figures, which
are all absolute in value except the last, and this is properly
called uncertain.
• Any of the digits in a valid denominate number must be
regarded as significant. Whether zero is significant, however,
depends on its position or on known facts about a given number.
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The interpretation of zero :
1. Any zero between digits is significant.

2. Initial zeros to the left of the first digit are never significant;
they are included merely to show the location of the decimal
point and thus give place value to the digits that follow.

3. One or more final zeros to the right of the decimal point may
be taken to be significant

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Examples:
• Assuming that the following numbers are all denominate:
1. In 12.5, there are three significant figures; in 1.256, four
significant figures; and in 102.56, five significant figures.

2. In 0.5, there is one significant figure. The digit 5 tells us how

many tenths we have. The nonsignificant 0 simply calls
attention to the decimal point.

3. In 0.05, there is still only one significant figure, as there is in

0.005. 23
Examples…
4. In 0.65, there are two significant figures, and likewise two in
0.065 and 0.0065.
5. In 0.0605, there are three significant figures. The first 0 calls
attention to the decimal point, the second 0 shows the
number of places to the right of the decimal point occupied by
the remaining figures, and the third 0 significantly contributes
to the value of the number.
In 0.06050, there are four significant figures, because the final
0 also contributes to the value of the number.
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Pharmaceutical Measurement
• Pharmaceutical measurement is an important part of
pharmacy practice.

• It is employed in community and institutional pharmacies, in

pharmaceutical research, in the development and
manufacture of pharmaceuticals, in chemical and product
analysis, and in quality control.

• This chapter focuses on Measurement of volume & weight.

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Measurement of volume:
• The liter is the primary unit of volume. It represents the
volume of the cube of one tenth of a meter, that is, of 1 dm3.
• The table of metric volume:

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Measurement of volume…
• Although in theory the liter was meant to have the volume of
1 dm3 or 1000 cm3, precise modern measurement has
discovered that the standard liter contains slightly less than
this volume.

• The discrepancy is insignificant for most practical purposes,

however, and because the milliliter has so nearly the volume
of 1 cm3, The United States Pharmacopeia—National
Formulary2 states:
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Measurement of volume…
• ‘‘One milliliter (mL) is used here in as the equivalent of 1
cubic centimeter (cc).’’
• Equivalencies of the most common volume denominations:
=>1000 milliliters (mL) = 1 liter (L)

• It is essential for the pharmacist to select the proper type

and capacity of instrument for volumetric measure and to
carefully observe the meniscus at eye level to achieve the
desired measurement.
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Examples of metric-scale:
1. Cylindrical (A) and
2. Conical pharmaceutical graduates
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(B).
(Courtesy of Kimble/Kontes Glass.)
Measurement of weight
• The primary unit of weight in the SI is the gram, which is the
weight of 1 cm3 of water at 4C, its temperature of greatest
density.
The table of metric weight

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Measurement of weight ….

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Aliquot method of weighing and measuring
• When a degree of precision in measurement that is beyond
the capacity of the instrument at hand is required, the
pharmacist may achieve the desired precision by calculating
and measuring in terms of aliquot parts.
• An aliquot is a fraction, portion, or part that is contained an
exact number of times in another.

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Aliquot method of weighing and
measuring…
• The aliquot method of weighing is a method by which small
quantities of a substance may be obtained within the desired
degree of accuracy by weighing a larger-than-needed portion
of the substance, diluting it with an inert material, and then
weighing a portion (aliquot) of the mixture calculated to
contain the desired amount of the needed substance.

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Aliquot method of weighing and measuring
•

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Aliquot method of weighing and
measuring…
• The aliquot method of measuring volume, which is identical
in principle to the aliquot method of weighing, may be used
when relatively small volumes must be measured with great
precision:

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Aliquot method of weighing and
measuring…
• Step 1. Select a multiple of the desired quantity that can be
measured with the required precision.

• Step 2. Dilute the multiple quantity with a compatible diluent

(usually a solvent for the liquid to be measured) to an
amount evenly divisible by the multiple selected.

• Step 3. Measure the aliquot of the dilution that contains the

quantity originally desired.
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Aliquot method of weighing and
measuring…
• Examples:
A formula calls for 0.5 milliliter of hydrochloric acid. Using a
10-milliliter graduate calibrated from 2 to 10 milliliters in 1-
milliliter divisions, explain how you would obtain the desired
quantity of hydrochloric acid by the aliquot method.
• If 4 is chosen as the multiple, and if 2 milliliters is set as the
volume of the aliquot, then:

which will contain 0.5 mL of hydrochloric

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acid.
Density:
• Density (d) is mass per unit volume of a substance. It is
usually expressed as grams per cubic centimeter (g/cc).
• Because the gram is defined as the mass of 1 cc of water at
4C, the density of water is 1 g/cc.
• For our purposes, because the United States Pharmacopeia1
states that 1 mL may be used as the equivalent of 1 cc, the
density of water may be expressed as 1 g/mL.

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Density…
• In contrast, one milliliter of mercury weighs 13.6 g; hence, its
density is 13.6 g/mL.

• Density may be calculated by dividing mass by volume, that

is:

Thus, if 10 mL of sulfuric acid weighs 18 g, its density is:

Density = 18 (g) = 1.8 grams per milliliter
10 (mL)
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Specific gravity:
• Specific gravity (sp gr) is a ratio, expressed decimally, of the
weight of a substance to the weight
of an equal volume of a substance chosen as a standard,
both substances at the same temperature
or the temperature of each being known.

• Water is used as the standard for the specific gravities of

liquids and solids; the most useful standard for gases is
hydrogen.
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Specific gravity:
• Specific gravity may be calculated by dividing the weight of a
given substance by the weight of an equal volume of water,
that is:

• Thus, if 10 mL of sulfuric acid weighs 18 g, and 10 mL of

water, under similar conditions, weighs 10 g, the specific
gravity of the acid is:
• Substances that have a specific gravity less than 1 are lighter than water.
• Substances that have a specific gravity greater than 1 are heavier than
water 41
Depiction of layering of immiscible liquids in a test tube, mineral
oil being lighter than water and chloroform being heavier

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43
Specific volume:
• Specific volume, in pharmaceutical practice, is usually
defined as an abstract number representing the ratio,
expressed decimally, of the volume of a substance to the
volume of an equal weight of another substance taken as a
standard, both having the same temperature.

• Water is the standard. Whereas specific gravity is a

comparison of weights of equal volumes, specific volume is a
comparison of volumes of equal weights.
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Specific volume…
• Because of this relationship, specific gravity and specific
volume are reciprocals; that is, if they are multiplied
together, the product is 1.

• Specific volume tells us how much greater (or smaller) in

volume a mass is than the same weight of water.

• It may be calculated by dividing the volume of a given mass

by the volume of an equal weight of water.
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Specific volume…
• Thus, if 25 g of glycerin measures 20 mL and 25 g of water
measures 25 mL under the same conditions, the specific
volume of the glycerin is:

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Specific volume…
•

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END

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